i||iij|liJii|||lli!ii 


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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 

MUSIC  LIBRARY 

GIFT  OF 
GERALD  SCORDAN 


I 


1 


fROP£BTY  OP 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 
AND   THEIR   USE 


Music  Lovers*  Series 

Great  Composers  and  Their  Work 

Contemporary  American  Composers 

Famous  Singers  of  To-day  and  Yester- 
day 

The  National  Music  of  America  and 
Its  Sources 

Famous  Pianists  of  To-day  and  Yester- 
day 

Shakespeare  in  Music 

Famous  Violinists  of  To-day  and  Yes- 
terday 

Grand  Opera  in  America 

A  Critical  History  of  Opera 

The  Organ  and  Its  Masters 

Orchestral  Instruments  and  Their  Use 

L.  C.  PAGE   AND  COMPANY 

200  Summer  St.,  Boston,  Mass, 

Publishers 


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Orchestrocl 
Instr\im.er\.ts 
and  Their  Use 

Giving  a  Description  of  Each  Instrument 
Now  Employed  by  Civilised  Nations,  a 
Brief  Account  of  Its  History,  an  Idea  of  the 
Technical  and  Acoustical  Principles  Illustrated 
by  Its  Performance,  and  an  Explanation  of  Its 
Value  and  Functions  in  the  Modern  Orchestra 


By 
ARTHUR    ELSON 

Author  of  ''  A  Critical  History  of  Opera  " 


I  llu  s  t  r  at  e  d 


BOSTON  .^  jt  ^  ^ 
L.  C.  PAGE  iff  COMPANY 
>^         ^         ^         Jk         MD  CCCC III 


* 
^ 

^ 

* 


■*$^**^*^** 


Copyright,  igo2 
By  L.  C.  Page  &  Company 

(incorporated) 


All  rights  reserved 


Published,  October,  1902 


CCoIonfal  IPrcaa 

Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  C.  H.  SImonds  &  Co. 

Boston,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A. 


Jbrar^ 


/  ■. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  Primitive  and  Savage  Instruments 

II.  The  Growth  of  the  Orchestra 

III.  The  Violin       .... 

IV.  Other  Bowed  Instruments  . 
V.  The  Harp         .... 

VI.  The  Flute  and  Piccolo 

VII.  The  Oboe,  English  Horn,  and  Bassoons 

VIII.  The  Clarinets 

IX.  Horns,  Trumpets,  and  Cornets 

X.  Trombones  and  Tubas  . 

XI.  Instruments  of  Percussion 

XII,  The  Orchestra 

Appendix.     The  Acoustics  of  Tubes 


13 

37 
60 

83 
106 
127 

154 
186 
208 

233 
252 

271 

289 


LIST  OF   PORTRAITS 


Richard  Strauss 

John  Sebastian  Bach 

NiccoLO  Paganini 

Eugene  Ysaye 

LuDvviG  VON   Beethoven     . 

Hector  Berlioz  . 

Antonin   Dvorak 

Felix  Mendelssohn    . 

Hans  von  Bulow 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber   . 

Richard  Wagner 

Franz   Schubert 

Georg  Friedrich  Handel 

Theodore  Thomas 


PAGE 

Frontispiece 
46 

78 
81 
102 
152 
168 
177 
180 
196 
215 
227 
244 
251 
283 


ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 
AND   THEIR   USE 


CHAPTER    I. 

PRIMITIVE    AND    SAVAGE    INSTRUMENTS 

Whatever  origin  may  be  assigned  to  music, 
—  whether  imitation  of  bird-calls,  differences  in 
cries  of  attack  and  defence,  or  a  natural  expres- 
sion of  the  feelings,  —  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  musical  instruments  in  their  primitive  forms 
were  derived  directly  from  nature.  Accordingr  to 
the  definition  of  Fetis,  music  is  simply  the  art 
of  moving  the  emotions  by  combinations  of 
sounds,  and  while  these  combinations  are  the 
result  of  human  efforts,  the  methods  of  produc- 
ing single  tones  were  plainly  suggested  by  the 
inanimate  world.  The  whistling  of  the  wind  in 
bamboo  rods,  the  creaking  of  branches  when 
rubbed    together,  or  the   rumbling   of  a   hollow 

13 


14  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

tree  when  struck,  are  but  a  few  of  the  many 
causes  that  led  our  savage  ancestors  into  the 
paths  of  art.  The  twang  of  the  bowstring  may 
well  have  suggested  a  rudimentary  harp.  In 
Egyptian  mythology,  we  find  the  invention  of 
the  lyre  ascribed  to  Thoth  (Hermes),  who  found, 
while  wandering  by  the  ^di^^  of  the  receding 
Nile,  the  concave  shell  of  a  tortoise,  with  ten- 
dons stretched  across  it  which  gave  out  a  musical 
sound  when  struck  accidentally  by  his  foot. 

In  the  multitude  of  instruments  that  have 
given  pleasure  to  mankind,  from  the  time  of  the 
cave-dwellers  to  the  present  era,  there  are  but 
three  real  methods  of  causing  sounds.  In  the 
symphonies  of  to-day,  precisely  as  in  the  services 
of  ancient  Egypt  or  primeval  China,  musical 
tones  result  from  the  vibration  of  strings,  the 
vibration  of  columns  of  air  or  substances  set  in 
motion  by  air-currents,  and  the  vibration  of  solid 
or  hollow  bodies  set  in  motion  by  blows. 

The  strings,  or  whatever  material  corresponds 
to  them,  may  be  set  in  motion  by  being  rubbed, 
plucked,  or  struck  with  anything  suited  to  that 
purpose.  The  current  of  air  may  actually 
vibrate  itself,  in  tubes  of  various  length;  or  it 
may  set  in   motion  such  objects  as  thin  tongues 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE   INSTRUMENTS       I  5 

of  reed  or  wood,  flat  bits  of  metal,  the  vocal 
cords  in  the  human  throat,  or  the  lips  of  a  per- 
former pressed  against  the  mouthpiece  of  an 
instrument.  The  solid  or  hollow  bodies  that 
vibrate  under  blows  (instruments  of  percussion, 
they  are  called)  may  consist  of  almost  any  sub- 
stance,—  stretched  skins  or  parchment,  wood, 
stone,  various  kinds  of  metals,  —  and  may  have 
almost  any  shape. 

According  to  the  records,  the  most  ancient 
instrument  is  the  flute,  or  whistle  based  upon  the 
flute  principle.  A  rudely  fashioned  bone  of  an 
Irish  elk,  found  near  Desmond  Castle,  a  whistle 
of  reindeer  bone  discovered  among  troglodyte 
relics  in  the  Dordogne  valley,  a  bone  pierced 
with  several  holes  that  was  unearthed  with  old 
flint  implements  at  Gourdan,  and  a  stag-horn 
flute  found  near  Poitiers,  show  us  that  if  the 
cave-dwellers  were  not  provided  with  orchestras, 
they  at  least  possessed  solo  instruments.  Of  a 
later  date  than  the  stone  age  are  the  bronze 
tubes  found  in  Belgium  and  Schleswig.  But  the 
most  wonderful  examples  of  this  period  are  the 
old  Egyptian  flutes,  which  give  a  complete 
diatonic  scale. 

Even    to-day   there  are   races    that  use   these 


1 6  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

primitive  materials  and  principles  in  making 
their  instruments.  The  Caribs  in  Guiana  have 
for  a  long  time  employed  jaguar  bones  for  their 
flutes,  but  as  these  animals  have  become  scarce, 
human  bones  are  now  used.  Flutes  of  human 
bones  have  been  found  in  New  Zealand,  and  the 
Surinam  people  in  Guiana  have  the  pleasing  cus- 
tom of  making  such  flutes  from  the  bones  of 
slain  enemies.  Undoubtedlv  the  wide  dissem- 
ination  and  extreme  antiquity  of  the  flute  is  due 
to  its  simplicity  of  construction.  The  raw  ma- 
terials were  at  hand  wherever  bones  were  found, 
wherever  reeds  or  bamboos  could  grow.  The 
Greeks  had  a  proverb  which  said  of  the  reed  that 
it  helped  to  subjugate  nations  by  furnishing 
arrows,  to  soften  men's  manners  by  the  charm 
of  music,  and  to  educate  them  by  affording  a 
means  for  tracing  letters.  While  the  earliest 
flutes  seem  to  have  been  instruments  of  war 
rather  than  peace,  the  widespread  use  of  the 
reed  is  a  noteworthy  fact.  Humboldt  praised 
the  skill  of  the  Indians  in  making  and  tuning 
their  flutes.  Schweinfurth  admired  the  African 
Bongos  for  the  same  ability.  Cook  noticed  that 
the  natives  of  Tahiti  were  able  to  tune  their 
flutes   by  surrounding    them    with   a   leaf  rolled 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE   INSTRUMENTS       1/ 

in  a  scroll,  which  could  be  lengthened  or  short- 
ened at  will. 

As  a  rule,  the  savage  tribes  made  but  limited 
use  of  these  instruments.  The  Kaffirs  employed 
theirs  merely  to  call  their  cattle.  The  Carib 
played  his  as  a  signal  when  he  approached  his 
home.  The  Iroquois  brave  sounded  a  special 
tune  to  entice  his  lady-love  from  the  wigwam. 
Double  flutes  (V-shaped)  have  been  found,  and 
many  flutes  exist  which  were  played  upon  by  the 
nostrils  instead  of  the  mouth.  In  most  of  these 
the  finger-holes  are  few  in  number,  showing  little 
real  musical  attainment  on  the  part  of  their 
makers ;  although  at  times  a  series  of  players 
were  assembled,  each  with  a  flute  of  different 
pitch,  the  band  as  a  whole  thus  being  capable 
of  more  ambitious  flights.  The  syrinx,  or  pan- 
pipe, of  more  extended  compass  than  the  simple 
flute,  has  been  found  in  many  places,  the  most 
notable  instance  being  an  old  Peruvian  instru- 
ment of  eight  pipes  cut  from  one  piece  of  soft 
stone. 

Instruments  of  the  horn  and  trumpet  family, 
in  which  the  lips  of  the  plaver  vibrate  against  the 
mouthpiece  of  a  long  tube,  have  been  widely 
known  from  the  earliest  times.     The  great  length 


1 8  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  tube  needed  to  produce  a  deep  tone  was  very 
soon  found  to  be  awkward.  While  the  Euro- 
peans succeeded  in  bending  their  tube  artistically, 
the  Karagwes  of  Africa  adopted  an  ingenious  ar- 
rangement by  which  the  trumpet  could  be  drawn 
in  and  out  like  a  telescope.  African  horns  have 
been  made  from  many  different  materials, — 
ivory,  wood,  and  even  large  sea-shells.  Among 
many  tribes  the  chief  use  of  the  horn  was  as  a 
private  signal.  Just  as  the  warrior  Siegfried  had 
his  especial  horn-call  in  Wagner's  Trilogy,  so 
many  an  African  chief,  sometimes  even  every 
member  of  a  tribe,  would  be  known  by  his  own 
peculiar  melody,  showing  his  position  in  battle 
or  his  approach  in  time  of  peace.  The  seven- 
foot  wooden  war-trumpets  of  the  Maoris,  in  New 
Zealand,  could  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several 
miles. 

The  Indians  on  the  upper  Rio  Negro  made 
and  used  huge  tubes  resembling  bassoons,  of 
which  eight  different  sizes  were  employed  in  their 
so-called  devil's  music.  These  instruments  were 
made  of  bark  spirally  twisted  and  provided  with 
a  mouthpiece  of  leaves.  Upon  them  the  natives 
would  play  a  regular  melody,  with  correct  accom- 
paniment.    Women  were  forbidden  even  to  look 


PRIMITIVE  AND   SAVAGE  INSTRUMENTS       1 9 

upon  these  instruments,  on  pain  of  death  ;  and  it 
is  said  that  the  poison  used  in  punishment  for 
brealcing  this  rule  has  been  given  by  fathers  to 
their  own  daughters,  by  husbands  to  their  own 
wives. 

Another  instrument  much  used  by  savage  races 
was  the  gong.  Here  again  the  raw  material  was 
plentiful.  Stone,  wood,  iron,  brass,  and  copper 
have  all  been  employed.  In  Borneo,  small, 
crooked  pieces  of  iron  are  hammered  to  produce 
sounds,  while  further  metallic  music  is  made  by 
resounding  chains  which  are  thrown  into  the  air. 
Skilful  African  players  can  elicit  from  the  gong 
much  more  musical  effects  than  one  would  expect 
at  first  sight  of  the  instrument.  Its  chief  use, 
however,  seems  to  consist  in  arousing  the  natives 
to  warlike  frenzy,  —  an  effect  not  wholly  un- 
known among  its  hearers  in  more  civilised 
nations.  Bells,  too,  were  frequently  used,  the 
original  African  forms  being  derived  from  rattles. 
The  Pegu  tribe  of  East  India  united  twenty  bells 
into  one  instrument,  which  was  beaten  with  a 
stick.  The  Javese  bells  on  Banda  Island,  twelve 
in  number,  sounded  like  a  string  orchestra  when 
heard  from  a  distance  by  the  Challenger  expedi- 
tion. 


20  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Drums  were  until  recently  considered  the  earli- 
est instruments,  but  the  discovery  of  the  primi- 
tive flutes  has  upset  this  belief.  Drums  are 
found  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  from  the  skin- 
covered  water-bowls  of  the  Hottentots  to  the 
entire  tree-trunks  of  the  Ashantis.  Among  the 
various  practical  uses  of  the  drum  in  Africa  may 
be  mentioned  its  employment  to  beat  time  for 
singers,  to  celebrate  the  arrival  or  departure  of  a 
traveller,  to  accompany  native  carriers  in  their 
work,  and  to  give  the  rhythm  of  an  actual  code 
of  signals,  which  are  understood  by  the  Dwalla 
tribes,  for  instance,  as  readily  as  the  telegraph 
sounder  is  understood  by  the  operator  who  hears 
it.  Another  instrument  much  favoured  by  Afri- 
can tribes  was  the  marimba,  a  series  of  flat  wooden 
sticks  on  gourds  of  various  sizes.  The  difi'erence 
in  the  sizes  of  the  gourds  produced  a  difi^erence 
in  the  tones  when  the  sticks  were  struck.  Some 
writers  have  called  it  the  original  of  our  piano, 
though  in  fact  it  can  hardly  claim  any  greater 
honour  than  the  rather  doubtful  one  of  having 
given  rise  to  the  xylophone. 

Among  examples  of  plucked-string  instruments 
may  be  mentioned  the  many  guitars  that  have 
been   found    among    African  tribes.     Most  per- 


PRIMITIVE   AND   SAVAGE    INSTRUMENTS      21 

feet  of  these  is  the  "  lanku  "  of  the  Ashantis,  a 
hollow  wooden  box  perforated  with  holes  and 
covered  with  a  skin,  to  which  a  long  neck  is 
attached.  Its  eight  strings,  supported  in  two 
rows  by  a  bridge,  produce  soft  and  soothing 
tones.  Zithers  are  also  known,  with  strings  oi 
twisted  rattan  threads  or  bamboo  fibres. 

The  harp  of  the  Kaffirs  is  a  simple  bow,  with 
a  hair  string  which  can  be  tightened  by  means 
of  a  ring.  Near  one  end  of  the  bow  is  lashed  a 
round  hollow  gourd,  giving  resonance  to  the 
tones  when  the  string  is  struck.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  harp  and  lyre  from  the  bow  is  now 
generally  admitted,  though  the  New  Zealanders 
do  not  use  bows  and  yet  do  possess  the  lyre. 
The  African  negroes  have  harps  varying  in  size, 
consisting  of  from  seven  to  eighteen  strings.  The 
natives  of  Guiana  make  a  sort  of  aeolian  harp 
from  the  leafstalk  of  the  ^eta-palm,  by  separating 
its  parallel  fibres  and  placing  a  bridge  under  them. 
On  the  lower  Congo  lutes  have  been  found,  with 
strings  of  an  elephant  tail  or  threads  of  palm- 
trees.  The  mandolin  in  a  crude  form  is  a  favour- 
ite instrument  in  Dahomey,  while  New  Britain 
and  the  York  Islands  possess  a  primitive  banjo. 

The  origin  of  the  principle  of  tone-production 


22  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

by  friction  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  com- 
mon custom  among  savage  tribes,  in  Africa, 
America,  New  Britain,  and  elsewhere,  of  rubbing 
two  sticks  together  to  produce  a  tone.  Although 
the  resulting  sound  is  in  many  cases  so  fearfully 
and  wonderfully  made  that  wood-sawing  is  har- 
monious in  comparison  with  it,  the  principle  is 
so  easy  to  apply  that  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
the  savages  stroking  other  things,  such  as  for  in- 
stance their  bone  flutes,  as  in  Patagonia,  or  their 
hunting  bows,  as  in  the  country  of  the  African 
Damaras.  The  M'Balunda  negroes  possess  a 
rude  violin  with  three  strings  of  plant  fibre,  while 
the  Malays  have  a  two-stringed  instrument.  In 
East  Java  is  found  a  sort  of  flattened  violoncello, 
made  of  an  especial  kind  of  thin  cocoanut  that 
is  very  rare  and  very  costly,  and  provided  with 
strings  of  horsehair. 

The  Arabian  rebab,  or  rebaba,  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  origin  of  our  present  violin. 
The  rebab  was  an  instrument  of  two  strings, 
which  were  often  plucked  like  those  of  a  guitar, 
and  only  bowed  in  later  times.  The  rise  of  the 
violin  is  more  or  less  shrouded  in  mystery. 
Jean  Rousseau,  the  musician,  with  naive  assert- 
iveness,  begins  his  history  of  the  violin  with  the 


PRIMITIVE  AND    SAVAGE    INSTRUMENTS      23 

creation,  and  states  that  "  If  Adam  had  wished 
to  make  an  instrument,  he  would  have  made  a 
violin."  Fetis,  treating  the  question  with  more 
earnestness  and  authority,  mentions  the  Welsh 
crwth,  a  primitive  viol,  as  the  origin  of  our 
bowed  instruments,  but  we  have  no  better  proof 
of  this  than  of  their  possible  Indian  or  African 
origin.  The  nations  of  the  ancient  world  had 
no  knowledge  of  bowing,  and  it  seems  more 
probable  that  it  developed  in  the  way  indicated, 
rather  than  by  the  application  of  the  principle  to 
instruments  whose  strings  were  already  plucked. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  both  of  these  sug- 
gestions possess  some  truth,  and  that  the  violin 
is  the  result  of  several  independent  develop- 
ments in  different  places. 

China,  which  was  old  before  Greece  and  Rome 
were  thought  of,  has  for  centuries  possessed  its 
system  of  music  and  its  instruments.  The  in- 
vention of  the  latter  is  ascribed  to  Kai-tien-chi, 
the  ninth  emperor  of  the  spiritual  dynasty  that 
is  said  to  have  ruled  over  the  realm  in  mythical 
times.  He  perfected  eight  kinds  of  instru- 
ments, to  which  he  gave  more  or  less  poetical 
names.  Classified  accordinor  to  the  eight  kinds 
of  sonorous   bodies   that   the   Chinese   imagined 


24 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


would  produce  musical  tones,  they  are:  i.  The 
sound  of  skin,  produced  from  the  tanned  skin 
of  various  animals.  2.  The  sound  of  stone. 
3.  That   of  metal.     4.   Of  baked   clay.      5.   Of 


GROUP    OF    CHINESE    INSTRUMENTS,    FOR    USE   OF    SUBJECTS   WHEN 
ASKING   AUDIENCE   OF  THE   EMPEROR   YU.       B.  C.    2205 


silken    strings.     6.  Of   wood.     7.  Of    bamboo. 
8.   Of  calabash. 

In  the  first  class  are  the  eight  varieties  of 
Chinese  drums,  of  various  sizes,  mostly  barrel- 
shaped,  two  of  the  smaller  ones  being  flatter  and 
often  filled  with  rice-grains.  Musical  stones 
date  from  very  early  times,  some  being  received 


PRIMITIVE   AND    SAVAGE    INSTRUMENTS      25 

as  tribute  in  the  year  2250  b.  c.  A  set  of  six- 
teen of  these  stones,  usually  shaped  like  a  car- 
penter's square  and  hung  in  a  row,  form  what 
is  known  as  the  king.  The  sound  of  metal 
is  employed  in  bells  of  various  sizes,  perhaps  the 
most  esteemed  instruments  in  China.  Baked 
clay  is  used  to  form  a  whistle,  the  hiuen,  with 
from  five  to  seven  apertures.  This  was  probably 
the  most  primitive  instrument.  Silk  strings  are 
found  on  the  kin,  which  has  seven  in  number, 
but  gives  only  the  five  tones  of  the  pentatonic 
scale.  The  che  is  much  larger,  and  possesses 
twenty-five  strings.  These  are  plucked  to  pro- 
duce the  tone,  which  is  remarkably  soft  and 
agreeable.  Wooden  instruments  are  chiefly  used 
for  purposes  of  noise ;  two  noteworthy  forms  are 
a  hollow  box  in  which  a  hammer  is  swung  from 
side  to  side,  and  an  image  of  a  tiger  with  six 
wooden  pegs  in  his  back,  which  are  sometimes 
played  all  at  once,  in  the  manner  that  a  small 
boy  runs  a  stick  along  a  picket  fence.  Bamboo 
gives  rise  to  pan-pipes,  sixteen  being  bound 
together  to  form  the  siao,  and  also  to  flutes. 
The  Chinese  flutes  have  but  three  holes,  thus 
demanding  great  skill  in  the  production  of  tones. 
An  obsolete  form,  considered  the  most  difficult  to 


26  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

play,  had  its  mouthpiece  in  the  centre,  with  three 
holes  on  each  side  and  the  ends  stopped  up. 
The  calabash,  or  gourd,  serves  as  an  air  reser- 
voir into  which  are  thrust  a  set  of  reeds,  each 
provided  with  a  tongue  of  copper  or  gold.  The 
name  of  this  elementary  reed  organ  is  the  cheng. 
The  Chinese  possess  other  instruments,  probably 
of  foreign  origin,  among  which  are  trumpets  and 
examples  of  the  guitar  or  banjo  type.  Perhaps 
the  most  execrable  of  all  is  a  sort  of  mallet  with 
strings  extending  from  the  handle  to  the  head, 
inside  of  which  is  the  sounding-board. 

Chinese  music,  although  often  overlaid  with  tre- 
mendous din  and  clatter,  is  not  without  its  points 
of  interest.  The  Chinese  play  in  a  slow  and 
stately  manner,  and  regard  our  quicker  pieces  as 
undignified.  Their  love  for  their  own  music  is 
wide-spread  as  it  is  sincere.  Music  plays  its 
part  in  religious  festivals,  in  the  theatre,  and  in 
the  streets,  as  with  us.  On  the  stage,  the  music 
really  aims  to  express  the  emotions  of  the  char- 
acters,—  an  end  which  it  certainly  seems  to 
accomplish  in  the  most  emphatic  fashion.  The 
Chinese  have  two  scales,  corresponding  to  the 
white  and  the  black  keys  on  our  piano  ;  and  by 
employing  both  of  these,  they  could  reproduce 


PRIMITIVE  AND   SAVAGE    INSTRUMENTS      2/ 

our  music.  But  they  confine  themselves  to  the 
five-note  scale,  which  is  not  lacking  in  beauty,  as 
many  old  Scotch  tunes  show.  The  effect  of 
their  limited  scale,  rhythmic  style,  and  iteration 
of  single  notes  may  be  well  illustrated  by  our 
own  tune,  "  There  is  a  happy  land,  Far,  far 
away." 

The  Japanese  possess  nearly  all  the  Chinese 
instruments,  with  slight  modifications.  Thus  in 
crossing  the  Yellow  Sea  the  kin  and  the  che 
become  the  koto,  which  has  six  or  thirteen 
strings.  The  samisen  consists  of  three  strings, 
which  are  struck  by  a  plectrum,  while  the  kokiri 
is  an  elementary  violin  with  a  horsehair  bow. 
That  the  Japanese  also  demand  noise  with  their 
music  is  shown  by  the  composition  of  an  orches- 
tra of  seven  performers  :  one  with  a  large  drum, 
two  with  small  drums,  two  with  little  bells,  one 
with  a  pair  of  wooden  clappers,  and  one  with  a 
flute,  the  only  one  of  the  seven  who  could  give 
more  than  a  single  tone.  It  is  perhaps  as  unfair  to 
call  this  representative  as  it  would  be  to  take  our 
own  street  bands  as  a  type  of  our  music.  An- 
other orchestra,  for  example,  this  time  playing 
for  the  mikado,  consisted  of  a  straight  flute,  a 
pipe,  a  traverse  flute  (held  sidewise),  and  a  cheng. 


28  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

besides  the  small  and  large  drum  that  seem  to  be 
inevitable  among  the  Orientals.  It  is  worthy  of 
note,  however,  that  the  Japanese  are  at  present 
rapidly  adopting  our  own  musical  system. 

The  chief  musical  instrument  of  India  is  the 
vina.  Although  mentioned  as  a  lyre  by  ancient 
writers,  such  as  Pliny  and  Pausanias,  it  belongs 
rather  to  the  guitar  type.  It  consists  of  seven 
long  metal  strings,  tuned  at  rather  large  intervals 
apart.  The  body  of  the  instrument  is  of  hollow 
bamboo,  with  a  gourd  at  each  end  to  increase  the 
resonance.  It  has  a  finger-board  like  a  guitar, 
with  frets  which  are  not  permanently  fixed,  but 
stuck  on  by  the  performer  with  wax.  Its  tone  is 
both  full  and  delicate,  and  it  is  well  adapted  for 
rapid  and  brilliant  passages.  The  natives  have  at 
all  times  admired  this  instrument  greatly,  and 
good  performers  on  it  have  become  renowned. 
Especially  famous  was  Djivan  Shah,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  who  seems 
to  have  been  to  the  vina  what  Pagranini  was  to 
the  violin.  Other  Hindoo  instruments  are  the 
ravanastron,  a  two-stringed  violin,  the  serinda, 
provided  with  three  strings  of  spun  silk,  and 
played  with  a  simple  bow,  and  the  magoudi,  or 
guitar;  but  these  are  less  popular  than  the  vina. 


PRIMITIVE   AND  SAVAGE   INSTRUMENTS 


29 


and  were  possibly  imported  from  Persia.  Flutes, 
drums,  bells,  and  gongs  are  also  found  among  the 
ancient  Indian  instruments. 

Among  Arabian    instruments,   the    rebab    has 
already  been  mentioned  as  the  probable  origin  of 


■.UA/iT" 


DJIVAN   SHAH   PLAYING  VINA 


our  violin.  Other  important  instruments  of  this 
nation  were  the  lute,  the  tambour,  the  monochord, 
the  stringed  instrument  called  canon,  the  dulci- 
mer, with  strings  tuned  in  sets  of  three,  the  zamar, 
or  oboe,  the  kettle-drum,  the  nefyr,  or  trumpet, 
and   various  flutes.      The   ancient    Greeks  gave 


30  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

high  praise  to  the  Arabian  instruments,  evidently 
with  good  reason.  European  instrumental  art 
to-day  owes  much  to  the  Arabs.  If  the  rebab 
was  not  the  origin  ot  the  violin,  its  adoption  by 
the  trouveres  at  least  caused  the  spread  of  bowed 
instruments  in  Europe.  The  dulcimer  has  un- 
doubtedly given  rise  to  the  piano.  Our  oboes 
are  almost  exact  copies  of  the  zamar,  while  our 
drums  and  trumpets  also  are  close  imitations  of 
the  Arabian  models.  The  presence  of  the  Sara- 
cens in  Spain  and  the  voyages  of  the  Crusaders 
to  Palestine  gave  ample  opportunities  for  such 
imitation,  and  the  European  nations  have  cer- 
tainly profited  by  them. 

The  existence  of  flutes  in  ancient  Egypt  has 
already  been  alluded  to.  Very  much  in  use  also 
was  the  harp,  and  primitive  instruments  of  the 
guitar,  mandolin,  and  lute  types  were  also  em- 
ployed. The  lyre  was  in  use  as  early  as  the 
eighteenth  dynasty.  Among  the  percussion  in- 
struments were  small  wooden  clappers,  hand- 
drums,  and  larger  drums  with  sides  of  baked 
clay  ;  also  the  sistrum,  a  set  of  metal  bars  which 
were  shaken  rhythmically.  The  Egyptians  seem 
to  have  employed  these  instruments  in  many 
orchestral  combinations,  although  the  pictures  on 


PRIMITIVE  AND  SAVAGE  INSTRUMENTS       3  I 

the  ancient  monuments  do  not  and  cannot  inform 
us  whether  the  musicians  played  in  harmony  or 
merely  in  unison. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  can  lay  no  claim  to  in- 
vention in  musical  fields.  Their  instruments,  so 
far  as  known,  were  almost  entirely  borrowed  from 
other  nations  ;  but  the  whole  subject  of  Hebrew 
music  is  involved  in  obscurity.  Their  kinnor,  or 
harp,  was  probably  a  lyre.  The  neble,  or  psal- 
tery, was  a  species  of  dulcimer.  The  asor,  referred 
to  by  David  as  an  instrument  of  ten  strings,  was 
a  sort  of  lyre  played  with  a  plectrum.  The  tim- 
brel, or  tabouret,  was  a  small  hand-drum,  or  tam- 
bourine, probably  of  different  sizes.  Cymbals 
were  known,  also  trumpets  and  fiutes  ;  probably 
also  the  guitar,  the  pipe,  and  the  sistrum.  Organs 
consisted  of  simple  sets  of  pan-pipes.  One  of 
these,  made  often  pipes,  was  set  up  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem.  Each  pipe  gave  ten  tones,  and  so 
powerful  were  they,  the  Talmud  relates,  that 
when  the  organ  was  played  the  people  in  the 
streets  of  Jerusalem  could  not  hear  each  other 
talk,  and  the  sound  was  audible  ten  miles  away. 
But  the  name  of  this  tonal  wonder,  magrepha, 
meant  also  fire-shovel,  such  as  the  one  used  to 
build  the  sacrificial  fires  and  then  thrown  to  the 


32  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

ground  with  a  loud  noise.  Other  authorities 
have  contended  that  the  story  referred  to  an 
immense  drum.  In  any  case,  it  explains  our  lack 
of  definite  knowledge  on  the  subject,  and  illus- 
trates the  exaggeration  of  Oriental  writers.  An- 
other very  substantial  anecdote  is  found  in 
Josephus,  who  mentions  a  performance  by  two 
hundred  thousand  singers,  forty  thousand  sis- 
trums,  forty  thousand  harps,  and  two  hundred 
thousand  trumpets. 

Greece  had  few  instruments,  but  made  up  for 
this  lack  by  skill  in  using  them.  First  in  impor- 
tance came  the  lyre,  known  in  a  somewhat  smaller 
form  as  the  kithara.  This  instrument  was  too 
much  admired  to  be  ascribed  to  any  one  less  than 
a  god,  and  the  Homeric  myth  runs  that  Hermes, 
in  the  form  of  a  young  child,  wandered  forth  and 
found  a  tortoise-shell,  which  he  took  back  with 
him.  From  the  shell  he  made  an  instrument  by 
stretching  over  it  seven  strings.  But  Apollo, 
enraged  at  Hermes  for  having  stolen  his  cattle, 
approached  in  anger.  The  pretended  innocence 
of  Hermes  did  not  deceive  his  pursuer,  so  the 
guilty  god  gave  up  the  lyre  in  recompense,  and 
Apollo,  striking  it  with  a  plectrum,  invented 
music. 


PRIMITIVE   AND   SAVAGE  INSTRUMENTS       33 

Almost  as  popular  as  the  lyre  were  the  Grecian 
flutes.  These  were  of  many  kinds,  single  or 
double,  and  were  often  reed  '  instruments  rather 
than  true  flutes,  which  possess  no  vibrating  ma- 
terial.     Flute-playing  was    considered  part  of  a 


GREEK   CONCERT 


boy's  education,  and  in  the  Pythian  games  prizes 
were  offered  for  excellence  in  this  accomplish- 
ment. It  is  related  that  at  one  of  these  contests 
a  flute-player  won  the  prize  in  a  singular  manner. 
He  was   playing  a  straight  flute,   when   the  reed 

'The  term  "reed  instrument,"  as  here  and  afterward  used,  sig- 
nifies an  instrument  that  has  a  vibrating  reed  tongue  in  its  mouth- 
piece. 


34  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

in  the  mouthpiece  became  closed  by  accident. 
Instantly  changing  the  position  of  his  instrument, 
he  used  it  as  an  oblique,  or  traverse  flute.  His 
presence  of  mind  was  rewarded  by  the  laurel 
wreath. 

The  Greeks  had  many  percussion  instruments, 
which  played  a  part  in  the  revels  of  the  bac- 
chantes. Trumpets  were  banished  from  refined 
music,  but  had  their  day  at  the  public  games. 
One  remarkable  trumpeter,  Herodorus  of  Me- 
gara,  is  said  to  have  gained  the  prize  seventeen 
times  in  the  contest  at  the  Olympian  games. 
His  music  was  so  loud  that  the  audience  were 
sometimes  stunned  by  the  noise.  He  could  play 
two  trumpets  at  once,  and  when  he  did  so  his 
hearers  had  to  sit  farther  off,  in  self-defence. 
Once  at  the  siege  of  Argos,  when  the  troops  were 
giving  way,  he  sounded  his  two  trumpets,  which 
so  inspired  the  warriors  that  they  returned  to  the 
fight  and  won  the  victory. 

Roman  music,  which  at  first  showed  some 
traces  of  early  Etruscan  influence,  soon  became  a 
mere  imitation  of  the  Greek  art.  Instead  of  the 
lyre,  the  tibia,  or  flute  with  reed  mouthpiece, 
became  the  representative  instrument.  The  so- 
called    hydraulic     organs,    which     flourished     in 


PRIMITIVE   AND  SAVAGE  INSTRUMENTS       35 

ancient  times,  were  sets  of  large  pipes  in  which 
the  air-pressure  was  supplied  by  some  system  of 
water-pressure  and  cisterns.  The  absence  of 
bowed  instruments  was  noteworthy,  and  the  use 
of  bows  to  rub  strings  was  still  unknown.  His- 
tory is  forced  to  discard  the  well-known  anecdote 
of  Nero  fiddling  while  Rome  was  burning. 
What  this  cruel  but  musical  emperor  really  did 
was  to  ascend  his  tower  and  watch  the  spectacle, 
which  moved  him  so  much  that  he  burst  into 
music  and  sang  "  The  Destruction  of  Troy." 
Lest  he  be  taken  as  a  text  by  those  misguided 
modern  theorists  who  are  trying  to  prove  a  con- 
nection between  music  and  crime,  it  may  be 
stated  in  passing  that  Nero's  musical  attainments 
were  not  great,  and  that  the  applause  which 
greeted  them  was  largely  a  matter  of  flattery,  if 
not  of  actual  compulsion. 

In  summing  up,  the  student  finds  that  the 
use  of  various  kinds  of  musical  instruments,  and 
the  principles  on  which  they  depended,  were 
more  or  less  known  by  every  ancient  nation. 
But  the  skill  or  knowledge  required  to  use  them 
in  any  but  the  simplest  combinations  was  entirely 
lacking.  True  orchestras  and  orchestral  music, 
in  our  sense  of  the  word,  did  not  exist.      It  is 


^6  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

only  in  medigeval  and  modern  times,  and  among 
European  nations  that  the  evolution  of  harmony 
and  counterpoint  have  made  possible  the  rich 
and  manifold  textures  of  our  modern  orchestral 
compositions. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  ORCHESTRA 

After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
music  was  at  a  very  low  ebb.  The  use  of  instru- 
ments was  limited  in  the  extreme,  and  the  art 
was  kept  alive  almost  wholly  by  vocal  means. 
The  rise  of  our  music  from  that  of  Greece,  the 
work  of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Gregory  in  sys- 
tematising  the  modes,  the  exertions  of  Charle- 
magne in  the  cause  of  correct  singing,  the 
introduction  of  notation,  the  reforms  and  im- 
provements of  Hucbald  and  Guido  of  Arezzo, 
the  growth  of  the  staff,  of  measured  notation,  and 
of  counterpoint,  all  these  important  items  of 
musical  progress  were  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  use  of  instruments. 

The  early  bards  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land exerted  little  influence  on  the  growth  of 
orchestras.  The  strolling  players  of  the  Dark 
Ages,  too,  were  not  productive  of  any  instrumen- 
tal development.      It  is  not  until  the  rise  of  the 

Z7 


38 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


'\     ^^A^ 


A  TROUBADOUR 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  39 

troubadours,  trouveres,  and  minnesingers,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  that  we  find 
instruments  playing  an  important  part  in  accom- 
paniments. The  life  of  the  troubadour  formed 
an  interesting  picture  in  the  great  mediaeval  pan- 
orama of  chivalry.  At  the  first  breath  of  spring, 
this  minstrel  knight  would  sally  forth,  with  his 
train  of  jongleurs  (accompanists)  and  pages,  and 
visit  some  neighbouring  castle.  Here,  after  a 
welcome  to  which  the  jongleurs  responded  with 
music,  a  banquet  would  generally  be  held,  after 
which  came  more  of  the  troubadour's  composi- 
tions, sung  and  played  by  the  jongleurs  either  at 
the  table  or  in  a  special  minstrels'  gallery  over 
the  main  door.  The  next  morning,  while  the 
women  were  taking  the  air  on  the  castle  walls  or 
in  the  surrounding  meadows,  the  jongleurs  would 
move  about  and  sing  as  before,  while  at  this 
point  the  troubadour  might  deign  to  show  his 
own  skill,  accompanying  himself  on  a  guitar. 

But  it  was  the  jongleurs  who  became  proficient 
on  the  various  instruments  of  the  time,  for  the 
troubadour  confined  himself  largely  to  composi- 
tion. Subsisting  by  their  skill,  at  first  under  the 
troubadours  and  afterward  independently,  the 
jongleurs    not    only    considered    it    a    point    of 


40  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

honour  to  play  well,  but  found  it  necessary  to 
do  so.  The  jongleur  was  a  man  of  varied  ac- 
complishments, as  is  shown  by  the  instructions 
of  the  troubadour,  Girard  Calanson.  "  Learn  to 
act  well,"  his  directions  run,  "  to  speak  well,  and 
to  extemporise  rhymes  well.  Learn  to  invent 
clever  and  amusing  games  to  please  people. 
Learn  to  play  on  the  tabour,  the  cymbals,  and 
the  bagpipe.  Learn  to  throw  and  catch  little 
apples  on  the  point  of  knives.  Learn  to  imi- 
tate the  songs  of  birds  with  your  voices,  to  pre- 
tend to  make  an  attack  on  a  castle  as  if  you  were 
besieging  it,  to  jump  through  four  hoops,  to  play 
on  the  citall  and  the  mandore,  to  perform  on  the 
cloncorde  and  the  guitar,  for  they  are  delightful 
to  all.  Learn  how  to  string  the  viol  with  seven- 
teen chords,  to  sound  the  bells,  to  play  the  harp, 
and  to  compose  a  jig  that  shall  enliven  the  sound 
of  the  psaltery." 

The  best  jongleur  was  he  who  could  plav  the 
most  instruments.  "  I  can  play,"  savs  the  min- 
strel, in  the  Bodleian  manuscript  at  Oxford,  "  the 
lute,  the  violin,  the  pipe,  the  bagpipe,  the  syrinx, 
the  harp,  the  gigue,  the  gittern,  the  symphony, 
the  psaltery,  the  organistrum,  the  regals,  the 
tabour,    and    the    rote."     Of   these    instruments 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  4 1 

the  gigue '  was  a  small  and  high-pitched  vio- 
lin, the  gittern  a  guitar  strung  with  catgut,  the 
symphony  probably  some  form  of  bagpipe,  the 
regals  a  tiny  folding  organ,  the  tabour  a  shep- 
herd's pipe,  and  the  rote  a  small  square  harp. 
Stranger  than  these,  however,  was  the  orga- 
nistrum,  a  species  of  lute  provided  with  keys  and 
a  wheel.  The  wheel  was  kept  in  motion,  the 
strings  being  pressed  against  it  by  means  of 
the  keys.  All  these,  with  the  flute,  trumpet, 
flageolet,  sackbut  (trombone),  shalm  (clarinet),  re- 
beck (a  bowed  mandolin  derived  from  the  rebab), 
and  marine  trumpet  (not  a  trumpet,  but  a  large 
monochord  giving  a  scale  from  a  single  string), 
certainly  made  a  formidable  array  of  instruments. 
But  there  seems  to  have  been  no  idea  of  a 
definite  orchestra,  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  the  description  of  the  first  perform- 
ance of  Balthasarini's  "  Ballet  Comique  de  la 
Reine"  (France,  1 581),  mention  is  made  of  haut- 
boys, flutes,  cornets,  trombones,  viole  da  gamba 
(large  viols  tuned  in  fourths  or  thirds),  lutes, 
harps,  a  flageolet,  and  ten  violins.  But  the  mu- 
sicians were  separated  into  groups,  and  while  one 

'  From  "gigue"  was  derived  "  Geige,"  the  German  name  for  the 
vioUn. 


42  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

set  played,  the  rest  were  silent.  In  Rome,  at 
one  of  Cavaliere's  oratorios,  performed  in  1600, 
was  an  elementary  orchestra  consisting  of  a  viol 
da  gamba,  a  harpsichord,  a  double  guitar,  and 
two  flutes,  with  a  violin  to  play  in  unison  with 
the  soprano  voice.  In  the  same  year  Peri's 
"  Euridice,"  the  first  opera  extant,  was  produced 
at  Florence,  with  the  accompaniment  of  a  harp- 
sichord, a  large  guitar,  a  viol  da  gamba,  and  a 
theorbo,  or  large  lute. 

In  the  performance  of  Monteverde's  "  Orfeo  " 
at  Mantua  in  1608,  we  find  a  more  extensive 
orchestra,  consisting  of  two  harpsichords,  two 
bass  viols,  ten  tenor  viols,  one  double  harp, 
two  small  French  violins,  two  large  guitars,  two 
wooden  organs,  three  viole  da  gamba,  four  trom- 
bones, one  regal,  two  cornetti,  one  treble  flute, 
one  clarion,  and  three  trumpets  with  mutes.  In 
all  this  early  work,  the  players  were  allowed  con- 
siderable latitude.  Very  little  except  the  actual 
melody  was  written,  the  harmonies  being  indi- 
cated by  a  figured  bass  which  the  performers 
translated  into   notes. 

The  rapid  progress  of  dramatic  work  rendered 
good  accompaniments  a  necessity,  and  the  hetero- 
geneous mixtures  of  instruments  soon  gave  way 


THE    GROWTH  OF  THE   ORCHESTRA  43 

to   a    more   orderly  arrangement.      At   first   the 

chief  emphasis   was   placed   on   the  viols,  which 

were    developed    from    the    troubadour    fiddle. 

Viols  were  of  four  sizes,  the   treble   or  discant, 

the  tenor  (viola   di   braccio),  the  bass  (viola  da 

gamba).    and    the    double-bass    (violone).      The 

viols    differed    from    the   violin    type    in    having 

deeper  ribs,  a  flat  back,  and  an  inferior  quality 

of  tone.     With  the  exception  of  the  double-bass, 

the  viols  disappeared  from  the  orchestra  in  the 

eighteenth   century.      But  even   in   earlier   times 

the   violins   pressed   them    hard    for   supremacy, 

and   we   find   Cavalli,  in  ,1649,  accompanying  a 

song   in   "II    Giasone "  with   two   violins  and  a 

bass    in    almost    modern    fashion.     Stradella,    in 

1676,  used  a  double  orchestra,  composed  of  two 

violins  and  a  'cello  for  accompanying  solos,  and 

a  large  number  of  violins,  tenors,  and  basses,  for 

filling  in  harmonies.     At  about  the  same  time, 

Scarlatti  employed  two  violins,  viola,  and  bass, 

using    them    in    exactly    the    manner    that    any 

modern  composer  would  do. 

The  introduction  of  the  wind-instruments 
came  more  slowlv-  At  first  they  were  few  in 
number,  and  were  used  merely  to  reinforce  the 
strings     by     playing     the     same     melody.       But 


44 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


gradually  the  newcomers  in  the  orchestra  were  ac- 
corded individual  rights,  and  the  historian  Burney, 
when  in  Rome,  heard  a  song  of  Scarlatti,  with 
trumpet  obligato,  which  proved  that  the  great 
composer  knew  the  instrument  thoroughly. 

In  France,  as  in  Italy,  the  growth  of  opera 
aided  that  of  the  orchestra,  but  in  France  the 
wide-spread  popularity  of  allegorical  ballets  gave 
an  added  incentive  to  instrumental  development. 
In  the  works  of  Lully,  the  great  founder  of 
French  opera,  we  find  well-developed  orchestral 
accompaniments,  besides  overtures  of  some  im- 
portance. The  archaic  quality  of  Lully's  scores 
is  due  to  the  employment  of  the  instruments  by 

IE  TRIOMPHE  DE  L'AMOUR- 

BALLET     ROYAL- 

piiiiiiiisii^ 

*^   OUVER.TURE. 

igi^iiiiiigiigiiii 


iiiiiltaiSiiiiiiiiiiiii 


m. 


Ilfei 


ppiii^psiiiii 


SCORE  OF   LULLY,   FOR   STRINGS  AND  BASSO  CONTINUO 


THE    GROWTH  OF  THE    ORCHESTRA 


45 


groups  rather  than  as  a  whole,  thus  producing 
the  effect  of  a  string  orchestra  at  one  moment, 
and  a  wood-wind  band  at  the  next.  Yet  his  part- 
writing  is    pleasing   and   effective,  if  simple,  as 


RirOURNELLB     POUB.     DlAb»l 


=F=T=mJt:p 


fP 


FtUTE    D'AllEM&CNE. 


FtUTE    O'AlLEMACNE 


Basse  Contimu  e. 

may  be  seen  by  the  illustrations  given.  They 
are  taken  from  the  ballet  "  Le  Triomphe  de 
r Amour,"  published  in  1681,  and  were  played 
by  a  string  band,  two  oboes  and  a  bassoon,  and 


CHOEUR  DBS    SyLvaiKs. 


iisigiiiii^i^^ 


QuerEmpircamourcuxEftuncharmat  Etnpi-  re. 


h 


re.Que  I'Enipirc  amourcuxEft  un  charn>ac  £mpire. 


Que  i'Einpirc  amourcuxEfi  un  charmacEnipire. 

WOODWIND    PASSAGES,    FROM    LULLY    SCORE 

a  combination  of  flutes,  each  group  being  gener- 
ally supported  by  a  bass  on  the  harpsichord. 
Up  to  this  time,  all  music  had  been  divided 


46  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

into  groups  of  instruments,  one  group  playing 
throughout  one  selection.  Any  infraction  of 
this  custom  was  contrary  to  rule,  as  may  be  seen 
by  the  English  term  of  "  broken  music,"  which 
was  applied  to  such  irregular  procedure.  The 
gradual  use  of  the  wind  to  support  the  strings 
led  to  more  varied  effects,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  advent  of  the  French  composer  Rameau 
that  the  wood-wind  was  used  in  free  parts  to 
enrich   the  harmony  of  the  string  passages. 

In  Germany,  instrumental  music  was  influ- 
enced by  the  polyphonic  school  of  counterpoint, 
rather  than  the  representative  style  of  the  early 
Italian  opera,  which  aimed  to  express  the  emo- 
tions and  typify  the  characters  of  the  piece. 
Thus  the  German  instrumental  writinjTs  that 
culminated  in  the  orchestral  works  of  John 
Sebastian  Bach  show  many  free  parts  in  their 
scores. 

Bach  was  undoubtedly  the  world's  greatest 
master  in  part-writing,  but  as  his  audiences 
did  not  demand  the  powerful  effects  of  to-day, 
and  could  not  continually  follow  his  intricate 
musical  tracery,  he  often  limited  himself  to  very 
few  parts.  These  simpler  passages,  introduced 
for  purposes  of  contrast,  as  well  as  the  figured 


JOHN    SEBASTIAN    BACH 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  47 

clavichord  accompaniments  and  the  numerous 
parts  for  instruments  now  obsolete,  have  to  be 
filled  in  for  modern  performances.  But  the 
original  scores,  in  spite  of  their  limitations,  show 
remarkable  purity,  symmetry,  and  consistent 
orchestral  skill.  The  chief  difference  between 
his  orchestras  and  ours,  if  we  except  the  obsolete 
instruments,  lies  in  the  comparatively  small  pro- 
portion of  wood-wind  employed  in  our  modern 
orchestras. 

The  extraordinary  variety  of  tone-colour  at 
Bach's  command  is  shown  by  the  list  of  instru- 
ments that  he  used.  Among  the  strings,  besides 
the  violins,  violas,  'cellos,  and  double-basses  in 
modern  use,  we  find  a  violino  piccolo,  with 
strinors  tuned  a  minor  third  above  those  of  the 
violin,  the  viola  d'amore  (a  tenor  viol  with  seven 
catgut  strings  and  seven  steel  strings  vibrating 
sympathetically  with  them),  the  viola  da  gamba, 
the  violoncello  piccolo  (small  'cello  invented  by 
Bach),  and  the  lute.  The  wind-instruments  em- 
ployed are  the  old  flute-a-bec '  (straight  flute 
played  like  a  pipe),  the  ordinary  traverse  flute, 

'  This  is  the  instrament  called  the  recorders  in  England,  and  so 
beautifully  alluded  to  by  Shakespeare  in  "  Hamlet,"  Act  III., 
Scene  2. 


48  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

the  piccolo,  the  ordinary  oboe,  the  oboe  d'amore 
(a  minor  third  lower),  the  oboe  di  caccia  or  taille 
(an  alto  oboe  corresponding  to  our  English  horn), 
the  bassoon,  the  cornetto  (a  wooden  instrument 
with  a  trumpet-like  mouthpiece,  the  treble  of  the 
now  obsolete  serpent),  two  or  three  horns,  trum- 
pets up  to  four  in  number,  trombones,  soprano, 
alto,  tenor,  and  bass,  and  kettle-drums ;  there  was 
also  a  trumpet  with  a  slide,  a  horn  similarly 
equipped,  and  a  curved  brass  trumpet  of  some 
sort  called  the  lituus.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  all  these  instruments  were  ever  used  at  once, 
as  Bach  followed  in  some  degree  the  old  custom 
already  mentioned  of  grouping  his  instruments ; 
but  they  indicate  the  great  variety  of  effects  at- 
tained in  his  music.  The  use  of  organ  instead 
of  harpsichord  to  give  the  continuous  bass  is  a 
point  worthy  of  mention. 

Handel,  though  skilled  in  polyphonic  writing, 
adopted  a  simpler  and  more  direct  style  in  his 
operas  and  oratorios.  He  was  acquainted  with 
nearly  all  the  instruments  employed  by  Bach ; 
but  he  did  not  use  the  violino  piccolo  nor  the 
violoncello  piccolo  ;  and  he  rarely  employed  the 
viola  da  gamba.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find 
the  harp,  also  the  archiliuto  and  the  theorbo,  two 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  49 

varieties  of  lute  which  Bach  never  used.  The 
oboe  d'amore  and  oboe  di  caccia  do  not  appear 
at  all  in  Handel's  works,  and  the  cornetto  only 
once.  The  flute-a-bec  is  rare,  and  horns  and 
trumpets  less  common  than  with  Bach.  Handel 
also  experimented  with  the  chalameaux,  the  pred- 
ecessor of  the  clarinet.  Two  harpsichords  and 
two  organs  were  used  to  fill  in  the  harmonies, 
the  latter  of  course  being  employed  in  the  ora- 
torios and  not  in  the  operas.  It  was  custom- 
ary, until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  for 
the  conductor  to  preside  at  the  harpsichord, 
although  the  method  of  conducting  with  a 
baton  was  undoubtedly  used  at  a  much  earlier 
date. 

In  using  the  strings,  which  form  the  most  im- 
portant group  of  his  orchestra,  Handel  often 
adopts  the  ordinary  arrangement,  —  two  violin 
parts,  violas,  and  basses ;  though  often  he  has  a 
three-part  accompaniment.  In  the  wood-wind 
group,  he  employed  oboes  and  bassoons  most 
frequently,  sometimes  to  contrast  with  the  strings, 
but  more  often  not  in  independent  parts.  The 
oboes  usually  doubled  the  violins,  while  the  bas- 
soons played  with  the  basses.  Flutes  were  not 
often  employed,  while  horns  and  trumpets  were 


50  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

used  chiefly  as  melodic  instruments,  and  not  to 
fill  out  the  harmony  as  in  modern  orchestras. 
Trombones  are  seldom  found,  but  when  present 
are  admirably  used.  Although  relying  chiefly 
on  the  strings,  Handel  often  scored  passages 
much  more  fully,  and  if  he  did  not  write  in  the 
style  of  to-day,  he  at  least  anticipated  many 
efl'ects  attributed  to  later  composers.  His  scores, 
however,  as  well  as  those  of  Bach,  have  to  be 
altered  at  present,  because  of  their  obsolete  in- 
struments and  the  figured  harmonies  of  their 
organ  and  harpsichord  parts. 

Haydn  has  often,  and  with  reason,  been  called 
the  "  father  of  the  modern  orchestra."  It  was  he 
who  first  banished  the  obsolete  instruments  found 
in  the  works  of  his  predecessors ;  in  his  scores  we 
find  nothing  that  is  not  still  in  use ;  and  he  was 
in  a  great  degree  the  inventor  of  orchestral  col- 
ouring, as  that  term  is  now  understood.  His 
methods  have  been  improved  and  extended, 
rather  than  changed,  by  his  successors.  He  un- 
questionably laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
science  of  instrumentation.  It  has  sometimes 
been  said  that  he  owed  much  to  Carl  Philip 
Emanuel  Bach,  second  son  of  the  great  Bach  ; 
but  in  the  works  of  Emanuel  Bach  there  is  none 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  5 1 

of  the  systematic  colouring  found  in  those  of 
Haydn. 

Haydn's  earlier  works  demand  —  besides  the 
strings  —  flutes,  oboes,  bassoons,  horns,  trumpets, 
and  kettle-drums.  In  his  later  works  the  clarinet 
appears,  though  it  remained  for  Mozart  to  give 
this  instrument  its  proper  importance  in  the 
orchestra  ;  and  in  his  oratorios  trombone  passages 
are  found.  The  contrabassoon,  the  piccolo,  and 
the  English  horn  occur  in  places,  but  form  no 
part  of  the  regular  orchestra. 

The  different  stages  of  orchestral  combinations 
up  to  this  point  may  be  briefly  enumerated  as 
follows  : 

1.  A  complete  string  band,  consisting  of  two 
violin  parts,  violas,  violoncellos,  and  contrabasses. 

2.  A  string  band,  with  wind-instruments  play- 
ing in  unison  with  the  string  parts. 

3.  A  string  band,  with  wind-instruments  sup- 
porting it  in  free  parts. 

4.  A  string  band,  with  wind-instruments  play- 
ing in  separate  passages. 

5.  A  string  band,  with  a  complete  wind  band 
both  supporting  and  contrasting  with  it. 

All  of  these  forms  were  included  in  the  orchestra 
of  Haydn,  and  the  skilful  use  and  combination 


52  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  them  has  produced  the  great  orchestral  effects 
of  to-day.  The  constitution  of  the  later  classical 
orchestra,  suited  for  the  effective  performance  of 
the  works  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber, 
Cherubini,  Spohr,  or  Mendelssohn,  is  about  as  fol- 
lows :  a  string  band  of  six  to  twelve  first  violins,  six 
to  twelve  second  violins,  four  to  eight  violas,  four 
to  eight  violoncellos,  four  to  eight  contrabasses  ;  a 
wood-wind  division  of  two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two 
clarinets,  and  two  bassoons ;  and  a  brass  group  of 
two  to  four  horns,  two  trumpets,  and  three  trom- 
bones, with  two  kettle-drums. 

An  orchestra  consisting  of  these  instruments 
was  until  recently  considered  suf^cient  for  all 
practical  purposes,  but  many  other  instruments 
were  introduced  for  special  effects,  and  a  number 
of  these  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  most  modern  orchestras.  A  partial 
list  of  these  includes  the  piccolo  (a  small,  shrill 
flute),  the  P^nglish  horn  (a  deeper  oboe),  the 
basset-horn  (a  tenor  clarinet),  the  bass  clarinet, 
the  contrabassoon,  the  cornet,  the  bass  trumpet, 
tenor,  bass  and  contrabass  tubas  (deep  brass  in- 
struments), the  contrabass  trombone,  the  harp, 
military  drums,  and  cymbals.  Piano  and  organ 
are  also  used  in  combination  with  the  orchestra. 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  53 

But  before  describing  these  instruments  in  detail, 
it  may  be  well  to  note  briefly  how  the  later  com- 
posers handled  their  orchestra. 

Mozart  differed  from  Haydn  in  using  greater 
warmth  of  colouring,  and  a  richer  treatment  of 
the  wind-instruments.  The  trombone  was  still 
used  sparingly,  though  the  impressive  passages  in 
the  finale  of  "  Don  Giovanni  "  showed  that  the 
composer  understood  its  effect. 

Beethoven  stands  out  as  the  foremost  figure  in 
musical  history,  and  his  skill  in  orchestration  is 
no  less  remarkable  than  his  happy  blending  of 
intellect  and  emotion  in  his  music.  In  speaking 
of  the  literary  greatness  of  the  Elizabethan  age. 
Professor  Barrett  Wendell  states  that  the  period 
of  greatest  glory  in  any  art  usually  comes  at  a 
time  when  its  methods  and  possibilities  have  been 
fully  grasped,  but  its  limitations  not  yet  felt. 
Such  a  period  was  the  classical  epoch  in  music,  of 
which  Beethoven  stands  as  the  representative. 
Although  modern  writers  have  gone  beyond  him 
in  complexity  and  richness  of  colouring,  his  works 
still  stand  as  models  of  orchestration,  and  hardly 
a  passage  is  found  in  all  his  scores  which  would 
be  improved  by  any  change.  Each  instrument, 
with  him,  is   individualised,  and  its  possibilities 


54  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

brought  out  in  a  variety  of  ways  that  were  wholly 
unknown  to  his  predecessors. 

Another  composer  of  this  period,  Cherubini,  is 
deserving  of  the  highest  praise  for  his  orchestra- 
tion. His  music  is  undeservedly  neglected  at 
present,  perhaps  because  of  the  contrapuntal 
(multiple-part)  treatment  of  his  instruments,  per- 
haps because  of  his  reserve  in  producing  his 
effects.  But  his  works  are  models  of  purity,  and 
in  their  simple  beauty  remind  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  ancient  statuary. 

The  works  of  Schubert  are  rich  in  colouring, 
but  imbued  with  a  delicacy  that  is  far  different 
from  the  broader  and  coarser  effects  of  to-day. 
His  scores  were  not  published  until  recently, 
but  at  least  one  modern  composer,  Johannes 
Brahms,  has  been  greatly  influenced  by  them. 

Weber's  orchestration  was  essentially  dramatic, 
and  abounded  in  effects  of  characterisation,  differ- 
ent instrumental  colours  being  skilfully  used  to 
portray  the  different  scenes  or  actors  in  his  operas. 
Especially  noteworthy  was  his  increased  use  of 
the  brass  instruments,  —  productive  of  many 
exaggerated  effects  in  modern  times,  but  adding 
rare  charm  to  his  works,  as  the  well-known  horn 
quartette  of  "  Der  Freischutz  "  will  show. 


THE    GROWTH  OF    THE    ORCHESTRA  55 

Mendelssohn  was  a  worthy  master  of  classical 
instrumentation.  Every  bar  of  his  works  shows 
the  most  finished  care,  and  if  there  is  some  dis- 
pute about  the  rank  of  his  compositions  as  music, 
there  can  be  none  about  their  orchestration.  Es- 
pecially noteworthy  is  his  skilful  use  of  organ  and 
harp  in  combination  with  orchestra. 

Schumann,  deeply  intellectual  and  emotional  in 
his  music,  is  on  the  contrary  less  happy  in  orches- 
tration. He  frequently  doubles  his  parts  in 
unison  until  the  tone-colour  becomes  turbid. 
Occasionally  he  creates  some  good  orchestral 
effects,  but  his  scores  as  a  whole  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  those  of  Schubert,  Weber,  or 
Beethoven.  He  was  essentially  a  piano  com- 
poser, and  all  his  works  are  pianistic  in  style. 

Passing  over  the  occasional  richness  of  Rossini, 
and  the  piquancy  of  Auber,  we  come  to  that  great 
French  exponent  of  dramatic  opera,  Giacomo 
Meyerbeer.  He  went  even  farther  than  Weber 
in  efforts  to  individualise  his  characters,  and  he 
often  allotted  single  instruments  to  each.  His 
scores  show  richness  of  colour  combined  with 
clearness  of  harmony,  an  effect  which  he  attained 
by  doubling  the  parts  in  octaves  instead  of 
unison. 


56  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Hector  Berlioz  possessed  an  extraordinary  feel- 
ing for  tone-colour,  and  was  remarkably  fond  of 
experimenting  to  find  new  combinations,  in  which 
he  was  not  always  successful.  His  scores  show  a 
largeness  of  musical  thought,  combined  with  an 
exactness  of  detail  (Wagner  said  of  him  that  he 
ciphered  with  notes),  but  they  make  exorbitant 
and  often  whimsical  demands  for  a  needlessly 
large  number  of  instruments.  He  was  the  first 
to  use  violin  harmonics  in  full  harmony,  and 
to  employ  the  deep  pedal  tones  of  the  trom- 
bone. In  his  requiem  he  calls  for  eight  pairs 
of  kettle-drums,  and  obtains  full  chords  upon 
them. 

Richard  Wagner  was  the  first  exponent  of  the 
real  modern  richness  of  orchestral  colouring.  In 
this  particular  his  works,  especially  "  Lohengrin," 
the  "  Ring,"  and  the  later  music-dramas,  are  ab- 
solute revelations.  Compared  with  the  works  of 
his  predecessors,  Wagner's  scores  show  not  only 
a  more  skilful  use  of  their  orchestral  colours,  but 
such  varied  and  wonderful  originality  that  he 
seems  comparable  only  to  an  artist  who  has  dis- 
covered a  newer  and  more  wonderful  spectrum 
than  our  own  set  of  colours.  One  never  feels 
the  experimental  character  with  Wagner,  as  one 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  57 

sometimes  does  with  Berlioz.  In  making  the 
Bayreuth  orchestra  of  1876,  when  he  had  thou- 
sands of  men  ready  to  do  his  bidding,  Wagner 
chose  as  instruments  sixteen  first  vioHns,  sixteen 
second  vioHns,  twelve  violas,  twelve  'cellos,  eight 
double-basses,  three  flutes,  one  piccolo,  three 
oboes,  one  English  horn,  three  clarinets,  one 
basset-horn,  three  bassoons,  one  double-bassoon, 
three  trumpets,  eight  horns,  three  trombones,  two 
kettle-drums,  one  bass  trumpet,  two  tenor  tubas, 
two  bass  tubas,  one  contrabass  tuba  and  contra- 
bass trombone,  six  harps,  one  bass  drum,  and  one 
pair  of  cymbals.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
this  orchestra  was  hidden  from  the  audience,  and 
therefore  lost  much  of  the  overpowering  force 
with  which  Wagner's  music  is  too  often  given  in 
other  places. 

Wagner's  emphasis  on  orchestral  colouring  was 
eminently  suited  to  the  stage,  where  the  orches- 
tra gives  no  definite  composition  in  strict  form, 
but  is  used  rather  to  reflect  and  intensify  the 
dramatic  situation.  But  since  his  day  there  has 
gradually  arisen  a  set  of  composers  who  have 
adopted  his  methods  for  the  symphonic  stage. 
The  result  is  that  much  of  our  modern  music 
relies  wholly  on  instrumental  and  harmonic  col- 


58  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

ouring,  and  lacks  coherency  of  thought.  This 
entire  school  will  be  found  by  posterity  to  have 
little  or  no  real  value,  unless  the  composers 
awake  to  the  fact  that  such  colouring  is  a  means 
rather  than  an  end.  Many  living  writers,  es- 
pecially in  Russia,  employ  the  orchestra  with  a 
breadth  and  surety  that  equals  that  of  their  great 
original,  Wagner,  but  few  of  them  put  into  their 
works  anything  like  the  actual  thematic  idea  that 
underlies  Wagner's  colouring,  while  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  concert-room  should  demand  even 
more  form  and  balance  than  the  operatic  stage. 
Musical  impressionism  has  run  wild,  and  not 
until  the  fever  has  abated  so  as  to  permit  some 
restriction  of  its  use  may  we  hope  for  results  of 
permanent  value. 

The  greatest  of  all  orchestral  writers  is  the 
German,  Richard  Strauss.  With  musical  ideas 
that  are  at  times  arbitrary  and  uninspired,  and 
seldom  clear  enough  to  be  effective,  he  unites 
a  mastery  of  orchestral  resource  that  is  almost 
incredible.  Not  to  be  mentioned  in  the  same 
breath  with  Wagner  in  wealth  and  beauty  of 
themes,  he  actually  surpasses  him  in  the  power 
of  portraying  an  emotion  upon  the  orchestral 
canvas,  —  a    thing    that  was   deemed   impossible 


THE    GROWTH  OF   THE    ORCHESTRA  59 

for  three  decades.  His  work  represents  the  most 
extreme  point  yet  reached  by  those  who  have 
devoted  themselves  ahnost  wholly  to  instrumental 
emotion-painting. 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE    VIOLIN 


The  violin,  as  already  intimated,  may  have 
had  its  origin  from  several  instruments,  —  the 
rebab  of  Arabia,  the  ravonastron  of  India,  the 
crwth  of  early  Wales,  or  the  crude  instruments 
of  Africa.  Its  use  by  the  troubadours,  in  the 
form  of  a  fiddle  (fidicula,  string  instrument),  gave 
rise  to  the  viols,  which  in  their  turn  were  replaced 
by  the  violin  in  its  present  form.  Among  the 
earliest  of  the  famous  makers  of  this  instrument 
were  the  Amati  family,  who  flourished  in  Cre- 
mona. Andrea,  the  pioneer,  was  born  in  1520. 
His  two  sons,  Antonio  and  Geronimo,  continued 
their  father's  work,  but  it  was  under  the  hand  of 
Niccolo,  son  of  Geronimo,  that  the  Amati  violins 
reached  their  greatest  development.  Still  more 
nearly  perfect  did  the  instrument  become  through 
the  work  of  Niccolo's  pupil  Antonio  Stradivarius 
(i 650-1737),  the   greatest  of  all  violin-makers. 

Another  famous  family  was  that  of  Guarnerius, 

60 


THE    VIOLIN  6 1 

of  whom  Joseph  (i 683-1745),  surnamed  Del 
Jesu,  grew  renowned  because  one  ot  his  instru- 
ments was  used  by  the  great  Paganini.  The 
worth  of  these  old  instruments  came  partly  from 
the  care  exercised  in  obtaining  the  proper  model, 
the  use  of  thoroughly  seasoned  wood,  and  the 
employment  of  a  special  kind  of  varnish  ;  but 
their  excellence  is  due  largely  to  their  age,  for 
the  constant  use  of  a  violin  tends  to  set  its  ma- 
terial so  that  it  will  respond  more  readily  to 
vibradons,  and  give  a  richer,  mellower  tone. 
That  age  is  not  the  only  requisite,  however,  is 
proved  by  the  worth  of  some  modern  instruments, 
such  as  those  of  Vuillaume  in  Paris,  and  Gemun- 
der  in  New  York.  It  is  said  that  some  of 
Gemiinder's  violins,  when  exhibited  in  Germany, 
were  refused  a  medal  because  their  fulness  of 
tone  made  the  judges  think  that  they  were  old 
violins  marked  over  for  the  occasion.  The 
maker  afterward  convinced  the  judges  of  their 
genuineness,  and  received  the  prize. 

The  integral  parts  of  the  violin  are  the  body 
and  neck  of  the  instrument  (of  maple  or  pine 
wood),  the  bars  on  which  the  strings  rest  (ebony), 
the  bridge  of  wood  that  holds  the  strings  up  and 
transfers  their  vibradons  to  the  body,  or  sounding- 


62 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


fl 


box,  and  the  strings  themselves.  These  strings 
are  nominally  made  of  catgut,  but  in  reality  the 
cat  does   not  enter  the  instrumental  field,  and  it 

is  the  sheep  or  goat  who 
furnishes  the  material. 
With  the  instrument  come 
also  the  bow  of  horsehair, 
and  a  metal  plate  called 
the  mute,  or  sordino. 

The  strings  of  the  violin 
are  four  in  number,  the 
lowest  one  being  wound 
with  fine  wire  to  increase 
its  weight.  They  are  tuned 
in  fifths,  beginning  with  the 
G  below  middle  C  of  the 
piano.  The  open  strings 
thus  give  G,  D,  A,  and  E, 
while  intermediate  or 
higher  tones  are  obtained 
by  stopping  (pressing)  one 
of  the  strings  with  the  finger,  thus  altering  its 
length. 

The  laws  governing  the  rate  of  vibration  pro- 
duced by  stretched  strings  were  first  formulated 
by  the  Greek  philosopher  Pythagoras,  who  prob- 


VIOLIN 


THE    VIOLIN  63 

ably  obtained  them  from  ancient  Egypt.  He 
discovered  that,  with  all  other  conditions  equal, 
a  higher  tone  (higher  rate  of  vibrations)  was 
obtained  as  the  string  was  shortened.  The  pro- 
portion is  a  direct  one,  or  as  we  express  it,  an 
inverse  one  compared  to  the  lengthening  of  the 
string.  The  rates  of  vibration  in  the  ascending 
diatonic  scale  of  his  system,  for  instance,  increased 
in  the  successive  ratios  of  9-8,  10-9,  16-15,  9-8, 
10-9,  9-8,  and  16-15.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the 
scale  that  the  whole  tones  from  2  to  3  and  5  to  6 
are  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  others,  while  this 
difference  does  not  exist  in  our  altered  (tempered) 
scale  of  to-day.  The  change  was  practically  in- 
troduced by  John  Sebastian  Bach,  who  divided 
the  scale  into  twelve  equal  semitones,  to  facilitate 
modulation,  which  was  too  much  restricted  by 
the  old  system,  or  the  so-called  scale  of  nature. 
By  combining  tones  and  semitones  to  produce 
larger  intervals,  we  find  that  the  ratio  of  increase 
of  vibration  for  an  upward  interval  of  a  minor 
third  is  6-c^^  a  major  third  5-4,  a  perfect  fourth 
4-3,  a  perfect  fifth  3-2,  a  minor  sixth  8-5,  a  major 
sixth  5-3,  a  minor  seventh  16-9,  a  major  seventh 
15-8,  an  octave  2-1,  and  so  on.  The  length  of 
string  needed  to  give  these  intervals  varies  in  an 


64  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

inverse  ratio,  as  for  instance  5-6  the  length  to 
raise  the  tone  a  minor  third,  4-5  for  a  major 
third,  3-4  for  a  perfect  fourth,  2-3  for  a  perfect 
fifth,  1-2  for  the  octave,  and  so  on.  Thus  if  the 
vioHnist  wishes  to  play  the  fourth  above  his  open 
string,  he  must  place  his  finger  upon  it  at  such 
a  spot  that  the  bow  can  only  agitate  3-4  of  its 
length,  thus  producing  vibrations  at  4-3  the  rate 
of  speed,  and  giving  the  note  required.  There 
are  no  frets  or  marks  on  the  violin  to  guide  the 
performer,  but  practice  enables  him  to  judge  his 
lengths  of  string  with  perfect  accuracy.  A  skil- 
ful performer  will  often  produce  good  effects 
by  making  small  variations  in  the  length  re- 
quired by  theory.  Thus  if  he  wishes  a  tone  to 
sound  brilliant,  he  may  sharp  it  by  placing  his 
finger  a  little  nearer  the  bridge  than  necessary. 
This  is  often  done,  especially  when  the  tone  so 
sharped  leads  into  the  next  higher  tone.  The 
accuracy  of  fingering  must  be  so  thorough  and 
so  automatic  that  some  violin-players  dislike  to 
touch  a  viola,  for  example,  on  which  a  different 
distance  of  fingering  is  required. 

Besides  having  the  string  vibrate  throughout 
its  whole  length,  it  may  be  made  to  subdivide 
and  vibrate  in  sections,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 


THE    VIOLIN 


65 


panying  diagram.  These  sections  are  called  seg- 
ments, and  the  points  between  them,  where  the 
string  is  at  rest,  are  called  nodes.  The  seg- 
ments, being  shorter  than  the  whole  string,  give 
higher  tones.  The  simplest  segments  consist  of 
the   two   halves   of  the   string,  which,  according 


3^-r 


STRING    VIBRATING    AS    A    WHOLE,  AND    IN    SEGMENTS 

to  the  numerical  ratios,  give  the  octave  above  the 
open  string.  A  segment  one-third  of  the  total 
length  gives  the  fifth  above  that  octave,  while 
still  smaller  segments  give  still  higher  tones. 
The  tones  produced  by  these  segments  are 
called  overtones,  harmonics,  or  in  Germany 
flageolet  tones,  and  their  successive  pitch, 
with    the    length    of  '  segment,    is    given    below, 


66  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

taking    as   fundamental    the  lowest    note  of  the 
violin.' 

In  the  example  given  above,  the  performer, 
by  cutting  off  1-4  of  the  string  with  his  finger, 
allowed  the  other  3-4  to  vibrate,  thus  obtaining 
vibrations  at  4-3  of  their  former  speed,  and  pro- 
ducing a  higher  tone.  Suppose  now  that,  instead 
of  pressing  his  finger  down  firmly,  he  merely 
touches  the   string   lightly.     The   result  will   be 

Zva 

J2. (5>—^ 


-&- 


^\  \  \  I  \  \  I  \  i^  h  h  h  K  h  A 

TABLE   OF   HARMONICS 

that,  instead  of  wholly  cutting  oflF  1-4  of  the 
string,  he  will  form  a  node  at  this  point,  and  the 
string,  if  skilfully  bowed,  will  subdivide  into 
fourths,  each  single  segment  vibrating,  while  the 
nodal  point  at  his  finger  remains  quiet.  Thus 
instead  of  3-4  we  have  1-4  of  the  string  giving 
its  tone,  and  the  vibrations  are  therefore  quicker 
in  the  ratio  of  4-1,  and  not  4-3  as  before.  As 
seen  from  the  table,  he  thus  obtains  a  tone  two 

'  Those  harmonics  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  out  of  pitch 
with  our  scale,  being  a  trifle  too  flat. 


THE    VIOLIN  67 

octaves  above  the  open  string,  instead  of  merely 
a  perfect  fourth  above  it. 

The  playing  of  harmonics  is  one  of  the  points 
where  the  performer  shows  his  greatest  skill. 
He  must  be  accurate  in  fingering  and  steady  in 
bowing,  otherwise  this  tone,  thin  and  clear  when 
pure,  will  break  at  once  into  a  series  of  meaning- 
less squeaks.  Of  great  difficulty,  also,  is  the 
playing  of  the  so-called  artificial,  or  stopped 
harmonics,  in  which  the  string  is  pressed  down 
by  one  finger,  while  the  shortened  string  is  then 
subdivided  into  harmonics  by  a  light  touch  from 
another  finger.  The  use  of  thin  strings  aids  in 
the  production  of  these  tones,  and  Paganini,  the 
greatest  of  violinists,  who  took  advantage  of  this 
fact,  was  able  to  produce  harmonics  up  to  the 
twelfth  of  the  series.' 

The  compass  of  the  violin,  in  Beethoven's 
time,  was  considered  to  run  from  its  lowest 
string  to  what  is  known  as  three-line  A,  —  one 
tone  ov^er  three  octaves.  But  since  his  time 
these  limits  have  been  passed,  and  Wagner,  in 
depicting  the  Holy  Grail  in  its  celestial  abode 
(prelude    to    "  Lohengrin "),    has    written    har- 

*  Kaenig,  the  great  acoustician  of  Paris,  has  produced  harmonics 
as  high  as  the  eighteenth,  by  the  use  of  thin  wires. 


68  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

monies  for  four  solo  violins  in  the  highest 
position,   combined  with   three  flutes. 

The  ordinary  style  of  the  violin  is  a  smooth, 
melodic  legato,  in  which  the  composer  joins  with 
a  slur  the  notes  which  are  to  be  played  by  a 
single  stroke  of  the  bow.  In  solo  playing,  there 
are  many  technical  points  by  means  of  which 
artist  or  composer  may  vary  and  embellish  the 
ordinary  legato  of  the  instrument.  Double- 
stopping,  or  the  playing  of  two  simultaneous 
melodies  on  two  adjacent  strings,  is  compara- 
tively easy.  So,  too,  are  arpeggio  effects,  in 
which  a  quick  sweep  over  three  or  four  strings 
produces  a  chord-like  effect.  It  is  said  that  Ole 
Bull,  in  order  to  produce  actual  chords  on  his 
violin,  had  a  special  bridge  made,  with  its  top 
less  curved  than  usual,  so  that  by  pressing  hard 
with  the  bow  he  was  able  to  touch  three  strings 
at  once. 

In  orchestral  work,  double-stopping  is  re- 
placed by  a  division  of  the  forces  into  two  or 
more  parts.  For  example,  in  the  "  Waldes- 
weben,"  of  "  Siegfried,"  where  Wagner  wished 
to  picture  the  myriad  sound  of  the  forest,  with 
its  bird-calls  and  rustling  leaves,  he  divided  his 
first  violins  into  three  parts,  with  a  solo  violin 


THE    VIOLIN  69 

besides,  while  the  second  viohns  (exactly  like  the 
others,  but  taking  a  lower  part)  played  in  four 
distinct  parts,  the  other  strings  also  playing 
divisi.  It  may  be  stated  in  passing  that  this 
distribution  of  instruments,  here  and  elsewhere 
in  Wagner's  scores,  produces  a  much  broader 
and  more  massive  effect  than  the  older  method 
of  scoring  for  unison  parts. 

The  violin  tremolo,  so  effectively  used  to 
depict  agitation  or  suspense,  is  produced  by 
moving  the  bow  rapidly  to  and  fro  upon  a  single 
position,  by  an  easy  swing  of  the  wrist.  Its 
dramatic  possibilities  were  recognised  at  an  early 
date,  for  Monteverde,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  introduced  this  effect  into 
his  operas.  Possibly  he  might  have  been 
tempted  to  refrain  from  inventing  it,  had  he 
foreseen  the  overuse  that  the  modern  melo- 
dramas would  make  of  it. 

Staccato  tones  are  produced  upon  the  violin 
in  various  ways.  One  effective  method,  in  which 
the  notes  are  marked  "  detachee  "  or  "  martel- 
lato,"  interrupts  the  tone  by  a  pause  of  the  bow 
while  pressed  upon  the  string.  A  peculiar,  rip- 
pling effect,  the  "  flving  staccato,"  called  also 
"  arco  saltando  "  or  bounding  bow,  is  produced 


70  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

by  allowing  the  bow  to  drop  upon  the  string  and 
rebound  by  its  own  elasticity  after  each  note. 

Sometimes  the  bow  is  discarded  and  the  violin 
strings  plucked  like  those  of  a  guitar.  This  ef- 
fect is  called  "  pizzicato,"  and  is  one  of  the  most 
skilful  orchestral  touches  upon  the  violin.  It  is 
frequently  used  to  picture  mystery,  or  to  accom- 
pany a  melody  in  guitar  fashion,  the  latter  instru- 
ment not  being  permitted  in  the  orchestra.  To 
indicate  the  end  of  the  pizzicato  passage,  and  the 
resumption  of  the  bow,  the  composer  must  write 
in  his  score  the  words  "  coll'  arco,"  or  simply 
"  arco."  Skilful  solo  performers  have  been 
known  to  give  a  combined  effect  of  pizzicato 
and  bowing,  using  a  free  finger  of  the  left  hand 
to  pluck  the  string.  The  pizzicato,  as  well  as 
the  tremolo,  is  due  to  Monteverde. 

Less  pronounced  and  clear,  but  somewhat  sim- 
ilar in  effect,  is  the  tone  produced  by  tapping  the 
string  with  the  back  or  wooden  part  of  the  bow, 
—  called  "coir  legno,"  or  with  the  wood.  The 
result  thus  obtained  is  used  —  very  rarely  —  in 
orchestral  work  alone,  being  too  light  for  solo 
passages. 

The  mute,  or  "  sordino,"  already  mentioned,  is 
a  thin   tongue  or  clamp  of  wood  or  metal  with 


THE    VIOLIN  71 

three  prongs.  When  used  it  is  placed  upon  the 
bridge,  which  is  clasped  by  the  prongs  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  no  longer  vibrate  freely.  The 
vibrations  of  the  strings,  therefore,  are  largely 
prevented  from  reaching  the  body  or  sounding- 
box  of  the  violin,  which  gives  the  chief  resonance 
to  the  tones.  The  result  is  a  softened  tone, 
peculiarly  thin  and  sweet  in  quality,  and  much 
used  in  passages  where  effects  of  pathos  or  tender 
simplicity  are  desired.  "  Con  sordini"  is  the  term 
used  to  indicate  the  employment  of  the  mutes, 
while  "  senza  sordini "  indicates  their  removal 
from  the  bridge.  Of  course  a  short  interval  of 
time  must  be  allowed,  in  the  score,  for  each  of 
these  operations,  and  the  performer  must  always 
have  his  mute  at  hand  or  in  some  convenient 
pocket. 

Embellishments  of  various  sorts — runs,  turns, 
mordants  —  are  in  constant  use  for  the  violin, 
their  ease  being  dependent  on  the  skill  which  the 
performer  can  put  into  the  fingers  of  his  left 
hand.  Trills  are  simply  produced,  by  constantly 
releasing  and  stopping  the  string  with  one  finger, 
while  holding  it  firmly  all  the  time  with  another. 
A  much-used  solo  effect  is  the  glissando,  in 
which  the  performer  changes  the  tone  by  sliding 


72  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

his  finger  from  one  position  to  another,  instead 
of  stopping  the  string  at  once  in  the  required 
place.  The  ghssando  is  always  noticeable,  and  is 
frequently  overdone  by  young  artists. 

A  special  kind  of  tremolo,  called  the  "  vi- 
brato," is  produced  by  stopping  the  string  firmly 
and  swinging  the  wrist  of  the  left  hand.  This 
does  not  interrupt  the  tone,  like  the  ordinary 
tremolo,  but  produces  a  series  of  alternate  swells 
and  subsidences  in  the  tone  that  are  very  expres- 
sive. 

The  fingering  of  the  violin  is  taught  by  means 
of  different  positions  of  the  left  hand.  The 
thumb  is  always  under  the  neck  of  the  violin 
to  support  it,  leaving  four  fingers  {r^^.  Thus  on 
the  G-string,  in  the  first  position,  these  fingers 
produce  the  notes  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  But  by 
moving  the  entire  hand  along  to  the  second 
position,  B,  C,  D,  and  E  are  produced.  The 
higher  positions  are  frequently  used,  and  are 
necessary  in  getting  high  tones  from  the  upper 
string.  Eleven  positions  are  practicable,  but  of 
these  only  seven  are  in  general  use. 

The  point  at  which  the  strings  are  to  be  bowed 
is  a  matter  of  some  importance.  The  formation 
of  harmonics  by   the  subdivision   of  the   string, 


THE    VIOLIN  y^ 

already  explained,  tends  to  take  place  whenever 
the  string  is  vibrating  as  a  whole  also ; '  just  as 
a  long  rope,  hanging  loosely,  may  be  given  a 
slight  jerk  and  be  made  to  vibrate  in  little  seg- 
ments at  the  same  time  that  it  swings  to  and  fro 
as  a  whole.  The  formation  of  many  of  these 
overtones  produces  a  piercing  quality  of  tone, 
while  their  absence  causes  a  hollowness.  By 
bowing  toward  the  middle  of  the  string,  the 
chief  overtones  are  prevented  from  forming, 
while  by  agitating  the  strings  very  near  the 
bridge  the  higher  overtones  are  brought  into 
prominence,  giving  a  peculiar,  squeaky  effect 
called  "  suir  ponticello."  In  pizzicato  passages, 
the  string  must  always  be  plucked  some  distance 
away  from  the  bridge,  as  otherwise  the  tone  will 
be  too  sharp. 

The  violin  is  beyond  doubt  the  most  impor- 
tant instrument  of  the  entire  orchestra.  The  first 
violinist,  "  concert-meister,"   as   he   is   called,"  is 


'To  illustrate  by  experiment  the  formation  of  harmonics,  lay 
light  pieces  of  paper  on  all  the  wires  of  a  piano.  Then  press  the 
pedal  and  hold  it  down,  at  the  same  time  playing  one  of  the  lower 
notes.  The  papers  will  be  thrown  off  by  those  wires  which  vibrate 
in  sympathy  (unison)  with  the  tones  of  the  harmonic  series  belong- 
ing to  the  note  played. 

^  In  England  he  is  called  the  leader,  and  in  France  chef  d'attaque. 


74  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

next  in  rank  to  the  conductor  himself,  and  should 
be  able  to  replace  the  latter  if  necessary.  He 
should  be  a  performer  of  the  highest  merit,  able 
to  play  the  obbligato  passages  that  occur  fre- 
quently in  modern  scores. 

The  violin  is  capable  of  expressing  every 
emotion,  from  the  deepest  pathos  to  the  wildest 
merriment  or  the  utmost  frenzy.  Its  use  in  the 
orchestra  is  therefore  varied,  extensive,  continu- 
ous. In  drawing  the  distinction  between  those 
instrumental  tone-colours  which  are  natural  and 
those  which  are  merely  arbitrary  or  the  result  of 
association,  the  violin  remains  entirely  in  the  first 
category.  It  lends  itself  naturally  to  the  melodic 
expression  of  every  shade  of  feeling,  and  while 
other  instruments  show  certain  distinctive  effects 
of  tone-colour,  the  violin  possesses  them  all. 

Besides  the  usual  methods  of  tuning  and  play- 
ing the  violin,  many  special  effects  have  been 
obtained  by  departing  from  the  general  practice. 
St.  Saens,  for  example,  in  his  "  Danse  Macabre," 
which  depicts  the  skeletons  dancing  in  a  grave- 
yard at  midnight,  tuned  a  solo  violin  to  the  tones 
G,  D,  A,  E-flat.  The  result  of  lowering  the 
first,  or  upper,  string  was  the  formation  of  a 
diminished  fifth  which  gave  a  peculiarly  bizarre 


THE    VIOLIN  75 

effect  when  Death  began  to  tune  the  violin  with 
which  he  accompanied  the  dance.  Paganini,  on 
many  occasions,  tuned  his  vioHn  a  semi-tone  too 
high,  and  transposed  the  music  a  semitone  down- 
ward when  performing  it,  thus  obtaining  tones 
more  brilHant  than  those  given  by  the  usual 
tuning.  Other  artists  who  have  produced  special 
effects  of  their  own  by  altering  the  tuning  are 
Barbella,  Lolli,  Baillot,  and  Tartini.' 

Violin-playing  dates  back  nearly  to  mediaeval 
times,  but  it  first  attained  prominence  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  introduction  of  the 
violin  into  the  church  service,  first  to  play  in 
unison  with  the  voices,  then  to  accompany  them, 
and  finally  as  a  solo  instrument,  gave  it  its  real 
importance.  About  the  year  1630  there  began 
to  appear  crude  examples  of  the  classical  violin 

'  An  anecdote  relates  that  the  German  violinist  Strungk,  famous 
also  as  one  of  the  early  opera-composers,  once  visited  the  great 
Corelli  for  the  purpose  of  hearing  him  play  upon  the  instrument. 
When  the  Italian  master  had  finished,  he  politely  asked  his  guest  to 
play.  Strungk,  after  demurring,  played  a  short  piece  in  a  purposely 
careless  manner,  whereupon  Corelli  gave  him  some  friendly  advice 
and  said  he  might  become  a  good  player  in  time.  Strungk  then 
proceeded  to  astonish  his  host  by  putting  all  the  strings  out  of  tune, 
after  which  he  played  with  the  most  amazing  brilliancy,  correcting 
the  false  pitch  of  the  strings  by  skilful  fingering.  The  astounded 
Corelli  cried,  "  Sir,  they  call  me  Archangelo,  but  you  must  be  an 
Archdiavolo." 


•J^  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

sonata,  —  an  alternation  of  slow  and  quick  move- 
ments. Soon  afterward  two  forms  were  recog- 
nised, —  the  church  sonata,  consisting  of  a  prelude, 
an  allegro  (fugato),  a  slow  movement,  and  a  bril- 
liant finale  ;  and  the  chamber  sonata,  really  a  suite 
of  dances,  in  which  the  stately  sarabandes  and 
allemandes  alternated  with  the  more  lively  ga- 
vottes and  gigues. 

In  Italy,  at  this  time,  it  was  customary  for 
great  composers  to  be  great  violinists  also,  just  as 
to-day  nearly  all  our  composers  are  great  pianists. 
Vitali  deserves  mention  as  the  first  of  the  series, 
while  Torelli  must  also  be  included  as  the  inven- 
tor of  the  violin  concerto.  But  the  most  famous 
name  of  the  generation  was  that  of  Arcangelo 
Corelli,  who  gave  to  violin  composition  and  play- 
ing the  dignity  and  value  that  it  has  held  ever 
since.  Of  even  greater  merit,  however,  was  his 
successor,  Tartini,  who  showed  more  poetical  feel- 
ing in  his  compositions,  and  introduced  many 
improvements  in  the  technical  use  of  the  bow. 

France  and  Germany  possessed  some  sporadic 
vioHnists,  but  it  is  to  Corelli  and  Tartini,  or 
rather  to  the  pupils  of  these  renowned  artists, 
that  the  two  nations  owed  their  development.  In 
France,  the  first  great  success  came  to   Leclair, 


THE    VIOLIN  77 

who  was  taught  by  CorelH's  pupil  Somis.  But 
toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Viotti, 
a  more  famous  representative  of  the  classical 
Italian  school,  came  to  Paris,  and  with  such 
artists  as  Kreutzer,  Rode,  and  Baillot,  placed 
Paris  far  in  advance  of  all  other  cities  in  the 
matter  of  violin-playing.  The  German  per- 
formers, taught  by  Tartini's  pupils,  still  clung  to 
the  older  style,  but  for  more  dramatic  works, 
such  as  those  of  Beethoven,  the  breadth  and  power 
of  the  Paris  school  were  required. 

The  man  who  first  introduced  this  broad  style 
into  Germany  was  Ludwig  Spohr.  Not  only  did 
he  open  the  eyes  (or  perhaps  the  ears)  of  his 
countrymen  to  the  worth  of  this  style,  but  he 
elevated  the  violin  concerto  to  the  rank  of  a 
worthy  art  form,  instead  of  the  more  or  less  pop- 
ular display-piece  that  it  had  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  French  writers. 

Meanwhile  Italy,  after  losing  the  sceptre  of 
classical  preeminence,  produced  only  scattered 
examples  of  her  former  greatness.  But  among 
Italian  artists  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  is  to 
be  found  one  who  was  by  all  odds  the  greatest 
technical  master  of  the  violin  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen,  —  Niccolo  Paganini.     The  story  of  his 


yS  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

life  is  one  of  absorbing  interest,  and  the  misfor- 
tunes and  persecutions  that  followed  him,  as  well 
as  his  marvellous  talent  and  strange  personality, 
make  his  biography  read  like  a  romance. 

Born  in  1784,  his  early  youth  was  spent  under 
the  severe  rule  of  his  father.  Parental  harshness 
would  undoubtedly  have  caused  him  to  turn  from 
music,  but  for  his  own  innate  love  for  it.  The 
long  practice  that  he  was  forced  to  take,  and  the 
many  hours  he  would  spend  voluntarily  in  mas- 
tering some  new  difficulty  of  his  own  invention, 
are  responsible  for  his  great  talent,  and  not  any 
fanciful  secret,  such  as  he  himself,  in  his  later 
days,  proposed  to  reveal  in  one  short  violin 
study.  Yet  it  is  a  strange  fact  that  Paganini  was 
able  to  impart  to  his  pupil  Catarina  Colcagno, 
who  was  only  fifteen,  a  brilliancy  of  style  that 
astonished  all  Italy. 

After  leaving  the  parental  roof,  he  wasted 
much  time  and  money  in  gambling,  but  was 
finally  brought  into  steadier  habits  by  losses 
which  almost  forced  him  to  sell  his  violin. 
Three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  devotion 
to  the  guitar,  a  whim  caused  by  his  infatuation 
for  a  rich  and  noble  Italian  lady  who  admired 
that   instrument,   and   at   whose   castle    Paganini 


NICCOLO    PAGAXIM 


THE    VIOLIN  79 

Stayed.  But  after  this  episode  he  returned  to 
the  violin,  and  we  soon  find  him  at  the  court 
of  Princess  Ehza,  at  Lucca.  It  was  there  that 
he  began  to  show  a  predilection  for  the  use  of 
single  strings.  This  habit  arose  from  his  admira- 
tion for  one  of  the  ladies  in  his  audience,  for 
whom  he  composed  and  played  a  love-dialogue 
on  two  strings,  the  first  and  the  fourth.  His 
great  facility  on  the  G-string  dates  from  this 
period,  though  it  was  not  until  some  years  later 
that  the  breaking  of  the  E-string  forced  him  to 
perform  more  difficult  four-string  pieces  with 
only  three  strings. 

To  show  the  malice  with  which  his  enemies 
pursued  him,  it  is  only  necessary  to  relate  the 
story  they  spread,  that  Paganini,  having  mur- 
dered his  rival  in  the  presence  of  his  mistress, 
was  condemned  to  prison,  where  he  passed  eight 
years.  He  was  allowed  to  keep  his  violin,  the 
calumny  ran,  but  owing  to  the  dampness  of  the 
cell  all  the  strings  but  the  lowest  one  broke; 
hence  his  great  facility  upon  it.  The  slightest 
investigation  proves  this  story  not  only  false,  but 
impossible.  From  the  date  usually  assigned,  the 
crime  must  have  taken  place  in  his  seventh  year 
if  at  all.      But  he  remained  with  his  father  until 


8o  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

the  age  of  fifteen,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
guitar  period  was  constantly  before  the  pubHc 
after  that.  Yet  the  story  persisted.  Even  to- 
day innocent  men  are  sometimes  made  the 
victims  of  waves  of  popular  persecution ;  but 
a  century  ago,  among  a  credulous  race  like  the 
Italian  peasantry,  the  violence  of  such  delusions 
must  have  been  enormous. 

Paganini's  wonderful  technique  gave  rise  to 
the  story  that  he  was  aided  by  the  devil,  and 
some  accounts  actually  record  that  that  satanic 
gentleman  was  seen  standing  by  the  violinist. 
Paganini's  great  height,  excessive  paleness,  and 
brusque  manners  certainly  made  him  a  strange 
personality,  but  were  in  no  way  responsible  for 
the  libel  that  sought  to  deprive  him  of  the  credit 
of  his  skill.  1  hat  this  skill  was  almost  beyond 
belief  is  admitted  by  all  his  audiences,  and 
proved  by  many  anecdotes.  On  his  arrival  at 
Naples,  for  instance,  envious  artists  who  doubted 
his  greatness  engaged  the  young  composer  Danna 
to  write  a  piece  bristling  with  difficulties,  which 
was  to  be  played  at  sight  by  the  newcomer. 
Understanding  the  snare  set  for  him,  Paganini 
gave  the  merest  glance  at  the  work,  and  played 
it  off  with  the  utmost  ease. 


EUGENE    VSAVE 


THE  VIOLIN  8 1 

His  death  occurred  in  1840,  after  long  illness. 
Some  accuse  him  of  youthful  excesses,  while 
others  call  him  the  victim  of  a  quack  medicine 
which  he  used  for  many  years.  His  body  was 
refused  burial  at  Nice,  and  was  transported  to 
Parma,  there  to  be  interred  near  the  Villa 
Gajona. 

The  school  of  France  and  Belgium  has  given, 
during  the  last  century,  two  names  among  many 
that  deserve  especial  mention.  They  are  De 
Beriot  (contemporary  of  Paganini),  and  his  suc- 
cessor Vieuxtemps.  Both  were  masterly  techni- 
cians, although  not  of  course  comparable  with 
Paganini.  A  distinction  is  sometimes  drawn 
between  the  Franco-Belgian  school,  which  is 
said  to  be  fierv  and  brilliant,  and  the  German 
school,  which  is  described  as  less  showy  and 
more  musical.  But  this  distinction  is  rather 
arbitrary,  and  the  violinists  of  to-day  are  not 
limited  by  any  single  school  or  style.  The 
most  famous  recent  names  are  Wieniawski  and 
David,  while  among  living  performers  Joachim 
has  long  held  the  sceptre,  but  Ysaye  now  seems 
to  be  takingr  the  lead. 

The    varied    violin    repertoire   of  the   present 
hardly     needs     description.       Solos     and    string 


82  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

quartets  exist  almost  without  number,  orches- 
tral scores  make  greater  demands  upon  the 
instrument  than  ever,  and  the  world's  best  com- 
posers have  used  all  their  genius  in  writing 
concertos  for  violin  and  orchestra.  Among  the 
great  masterpieces  of  the  latter  sort  Beethoven's 
single  concerto  will  always  remain  a  model,  while 
Mendelssohn,  Brahms,  and  Bruch  (in  his  G- 
minor  work)  have  each  given  the  world  a  noble 
example  of  this  admirable  form. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

OTHER    BOWED    INSTRUMENTS 

The  instrument  most  closely  related  to  the 
violin  is  the  viola,  —  called  in  England  the  tenor 
viol,  in  Germany  the  Bratsche,  and  in  France 
the  viola  alto  or  simply  alto.  The  viola  is  ex- 
actly similar  to  the  violin,  except  in  being  one- 
fifth  larger  and  having  thicker  strings.  It  is 
tuned  in  fifths,  like  the  violin,  but  its  heavier 
strings  (the  lowest  two  being  wired)  give  tones  a 
fifth  lower  than  those  of  the  violin,  or  C,  G,  D, 
and  A,  starting  an  octave  below  middle  C  of  the 
piano. 

The  playing  of  the  viola  is  wholly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  violin,  except  for  the  greater  stretches 
in  fingering,  due  to  the  longer  strings.  All  the 
technical  points  of  execution  are  possible  upon 
it,  and  all  the  violin  positions,  but  owing  to  the 
hollowness  of  the  high  tones,  positions  higher 
than  the  fifth  are  rarely  used.  This  gives  to 
the  viola  a  compass  of  about  three   octaves. 

83 


84 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


The  viola  part  in  orchestral  scores  is  notated 
in  the  alto  clef.     The  two  ordinary  clefs,  for  G 

and  F,  are  far  apart, 
and  between  them  is  a 
series  of  four  C  clefs, 
all  more  or  less  in  use. 
The  G  clef,  which  places 
G  on  the  second  line  of 
the  staff  (middle  C  on 
an  extra  line  below  it), 
was  used  in  its  present 
shape  as  early  as  1753, 
although  we  find  Lully 
and  others  placing  it 
on  the  first  line,  giving 
even  higher  results. 
First  below  the  G  clef 
comes  the  C  clef  on  the 
low  line  of  the  staff, 
called  the  soprano  clef. 
C  on  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  lines  gives 
rise  to  the  mezzo-so- 
prano, the  alto,  and  the 
tenor  clefs.  There  is  no  lower  C  clef,  although 
some  old   music  places  the  F  clef  on   the  third 


VIOLA 


OTHER   BOWED   INSTRUMENTS  85 

line,  thus  bringing  middle  C  on  the  upper  line. 
This  is  called  the  baritone  clef,  while  the  F  clef 
in  ordinary  use  is  called  the  bass  clef,  and  is 
placed  on  the  fourth  line,  bringing  C  on  the  first 
leger  line  above  the  staff. 

The  distinctive  tone-colour  of  the  viola  is  that 
of  brooding  melancholy.  This  is  due  to  its 
thick  strings,  for  thin  strings  are  necessary  to 
produce  many  harmonics  along  with  the  funda- 
mental tone.  The  absence  of  these  harmonics 
is  what  causes  the  dull  tone  of  the  viola.  An 
effort  to  overcome  this  defect  is  found  in  a  con- 
certo by  Mozart  for  violin  and  viola,  in  which 
he  tunes  the  latter  instrument  up  a  semitone, 
and  writes  the  music  too  low  bv  the  same  inter- 
val, —  tighter  strings  always  giving  more  brilliant 
tones. 

The  classical  orchestra  already  described  is 
divided  into  groups  of  four-part  harmony,  of 
which  one  is  formed  bv  the  first  and  second  vio- 
lins,  the  violas,  and  the  violoncellos.  In  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  the  composers  rarely 
wrote  four  real  parts,  the  viola  was  usually  rele- 
gated to  obscurity.  Occasionally  it  played  inde- 
pendently, but  almost  always  the  words  "  col 
basso"  drove  it  to  double  the  bass  part.     Viola- 


86  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

players  were  of  little  importance,  and  were  taken 
from  the  ranks  of  broken-down  violinists.  That 
Gluck  understood  the  use  of  the  instrument  is 
shown  by  a  scene  in  "  Iphigenie  en  Tauride  ;  " 
Orestes,  pursued  by  the  furies,  sinks  down  over- 
come in  his  prison,  but  the  gloomy  muttering  of 
the  violas  shows  that  it  is  not  peace  of  mind,  but 
merely  exhaustion,  that  allows  him  to  repose  for 
a  moment.  Mozart  uses  violas  prominently  in 
Sarastro's  air,  "  O  Isis  and  Osiris "  ("  Magic 
Flute"),  Beethoven  employs  them  well  in  the 
ninth  symphony  (3-2  passage  in  finale),  and 
Schubert  also  gives  them  some  importance. 
Beethoven  produces  a  delightful  tone  in  the 
andante  of  his  fifth  symphony  by  uniting  violas 
and  'cellos.  Mehul,  to  depict  the  lofty  melan- 
choly of  Ossianic  poetry  in  his  opera  "  Uthal," 
has  tried  the  experiment  of  leaving  out  the  vio- 
lins altogether,  and  giving  the  chief  part  to  the 
violas.  But  the  result  is  a  little  too  successful, 
and  the  composer  Gretry,  after  listening  to  the 
work,  exclaimed  :  "I'd  give  a  hundred  francs  to 
hear  a  violin." 

Among  more  modern  composers,  Mendels- 
sohn has  used  the  viola  skilfully  in  "Elijah" 
("  Lord,  God  of  Abraham  "),  but  more  famous 


OTHER  BOWED   INSTRUMENTS  8/ 

is  the  impressive  gloom  of  the  viola  melody  in 
the  slow  movement  of  his  Italian  symphony. 
Berlioz,  in  his  "  Childe  Flarold"  symphony,  has 
personified  that  contemplative  hero  most  exqui- 
sitely in  a  pensive  strain  for  the  viola.  Brahms 
has  given  the  instrument  not  a  little  prominence, 
and  Rubinstein  has  composed  a  sonata  for  viola 
and  piano.  Meyerbeer,  in  "  Les  Huguenots," 
has  written  an  obbligato  passage  for  the  obsolete 
viola  d'amore,  but  this  is  now  given  to  the  viola. 

Usually  the  viola  keeps  to  its  role  of  third 
part  in  the  orchestral  string  quartet,  but  excellent 
results  are  often  obtained  by  making  it  at  times 
cross  with  the  second,  and  even  with  the  first, 
violin  parts.  Owing  to  the  stronger  tone,  fewer 
violas  are  needed,  and  their  number  is  usually 
one-third  of  the  first  and  second  violins  in  com- 
bination. 

There  have  been  various  efforts  to  brighten 
the  viola  tone,  and  give  it  a  less  restricted  use  in 
the  orchestra.  Bach's  violoncello  piccolo  was 
really  a  larger  viola.  In  recent  years,  the  Ger- 
man Ritter  brought  out  a  large  viola  which  he 
called  the  viola  alta,  but  the  musical  world  has 
christened  it  the  Ritter  viola.  It  is  half  as  large 
again  as  the  violin,  so   none  but  men    of  large 


88  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

hands  and  ample  proportions  can  play  it,  and 
ordinary  orchestras  have  not  adopted  it.  But 
its  tones  are  remarkably  beautiful,  for  the  length 
of  the  instrument  allows  the  pitch  to  be  a  fifth 
deeper  than  that  of  the  violin  without  necessitat- 
ing any  thickening  of  the  strings  to  lower  the 
rate  of  vibrations.  On  the  ordinary  viola,  the 
increase  of  one-fifth  in  size  lowers  the  pitch  of 
the  strings  only  a  minor  third,  and  the  remaining 
depression,  a  major  third,  can  be  produced  only 
by  using  the  thick  strings  that  give  the  instru- 
ment its  dulness  of  tone. 

The  fourth  part  in  the  quartet  of  strings  is 
taken  by  the  violoncello.  The  nature  and  origin 
of  this  instrument  are  shown  in  its  name,  which 
should  always  be  spelled  with  an  o  in  the  third 
syllable.  The  old  Italian  name  for  the  double- 
bass  was  violone,  and  the  smaller  instrument  was 
given  the  diminutive  term  of  violoncello,  or  little 
violone.  The  English  name  for  it  is  the  bass 
viol.  Its  size  compels  the  performer  to  rest  it 
on  the  floor  while  playing. 

The  strings  of  the  'cello  are  tuned  in  fifths,  an 
octave  deeper  than  those  of  the  viola.  The  two 
lowest  ones  are  wired,  as  on  the  smaller  instru- 
ment.    The  fingering  is  different,  owing  to  the 


OTHER  BOWED   INSTRUMENTS 


89 


greater    stretch    necessary    to    produce   a   given 
change  in  pitch.     Changes  in  the  position  of  the 
hand  occur  as   in   other 
stringed  instruments,  but 
while   in    the   vioUn   the 
higher     positions     were 
difficult    because    the 
fingers  were  forced  close 
together,    here   they   are 
easy  because  the  excess- 
ive  stretch    is    gradually 
reduced.     The   compass 
of  the  'cello   is  therefore 
fairly     extensive,     being 
three  and  a  half  octaves 
at  least.     The  thumb  is 
often  used  in    fingering, 
especially  in  pressing  the 
string    while     the    little 
finger      touches      it     to 
produce   harmonics.       '    " 
The    fathers     of    the 
early  New  England  Church  must  have  possessed 
a   decided  predilection  for  the    'cello.      Usually 
exercising  rigid  severity    against  any   innovation 
in  their  simple  services,  they  seem  to  have  ad- 


VIOLONCELLO 


90  ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 

mitted  this  instrument  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, sometimes  paying  the  player  as  much  as 
I70  a  year.  Just  why  they  chose  this  particular 
instrument  is  not  easy  to  see ;  but  the  fact  re- 
mains that  they  looked  upon  it  with  favour, 
while  regarding  the  violin  as  a  device  of  Satan 
and  the  organ  as  the  most  utter  abomination  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Lord. 

The  tone-colour  of  the  'cello,  like  that  of  the 
violin,  is  capable  of  expressing  all  emotions.  It 
differs  from  the  violin,  however,  in  having  a 
deeper  and  more  masculine  effect.  One  of  the 
favourite  orchestral  devices  on  the  part  of  great 
composers  is  the  writing  of  a  sort  of  antiphonal 
dialogue  between  different  instruments,  and  the 
violin  and  'cello  form  a  pair  perfectly  suited  for 
this  effect.  An  excellent  example  of  the  alterna- 
tion of  themes  between  them  is  found  in  the  slow 
movement  of  Beethoven's  eighth  symphony.  In 
almost  all  of  Beethoven's  works,  in  fact,  the 
various  instruments  are  made  to  speak  out  in 
their  most  characteristic  tones. 

With  regard  to  solo  execution,  all  the  technical 
points  of  violin-playing  may  be  produced  on  the 
'cello.  Double-stopping,  however,  is  limited  by 
the  size  of  the  instrument,  and  intervals  practi- 


OTHER  BOWED   INSTRUMENTS  9 1 

cable  on  the  violin  or  viola  are  often  impossible 
here.  Arpeggio  effects  and  chords,  too,  must  be 
written  with  due  regard  to  the  size  of  the  human 
hand,  and  generally  include  at  least  one  open 
string.  A  series  of  such  chords  may  be  found  in 
Beethoven's  overture.  Opus  115,  written  in  hon- 
our of  the  Austrian  emperor.  Tremolo,  vibrato, 
and  glissando  effects  are  easily  produced.  The 
mute,  or  sordino,  can  be  well  employed  upon  this 
as  upon  the  smaller  instruments.  Especially  tell- 
ing is  the  pizzicato,  as  the  long,  heavy  strings  of 
the  'cello  give  a  full  tone  when  plucked.  Arco 
saltando  and  other  bowing  effects  are  perfectly 
practicable.  The  harmonics  of  the  'cello  are  of 
good  quality,  for  while  as  a  rule  thick  strings  do 
not  subdivide  easily,  their  extreme  length  on  the 
'cello  offsets  this  disadvantage.  On  the  upper 
string  harmonics  are  especially  pleasing,  resem- 
bling muted  violin  tones  in  quality.  Owing  to  the 
length  of  the  strings,  the  second  harmonic  cannot 
be  produced ;  but  the  third,  two  octaves  above 
the  open  or  stopped  string,  is  much  used,  and  the 
higher  ones  are  easily  obtained  when  needed. 
They  are  little  used  in  orchestral  work,  though 
Verdi,  in  the  Nile  scene  of"  Aida,"  has  employed 
them  with  notable  effect. 


92  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

In  orchestral  scores,  the  low  notes  of  the  'cello 
are  written  in  the  bass  clef.  At  present  the  upper 
notes  are  given  in  the  tenor  clef,  with  only  the 
very  highest  tones  in  the  C  clef  In  former 
times,  however,  it  was  customary  to  use  the 
G  clef  instead  of  the  tenor  clef,  with  the  tones 
sounding  an  octave  lower  than  written.  In  read- 
ing old  scores,  allowance  must  always  be  made 
for  this  point.  Besides  taking  the  bass  part  in 
string  quartets,  the  'cello  usually  retains  this  posi- 
tion in  the  string  band  of  the  orchestra,  playing 
in  company  with  the  double-bass,  which  sounds 
an  octave  deeper  and  forms  the  bass  of  the  entire 
orchestra.  The  'cello  adds  smoothness  to  the 
tone  of  the  deeper  instrument,  just  as  the  viola 
did  to  the  'cello  tone  in  the  andante  of  Beethoven's 
fifth  symphony.  Besides,  it  can  play  in  quicker 
tempo  than  its  deeper  relative,  and  can  thus  vary 
the  effect  produced.  In  cases  where  a  light  effect 
is  desired,  the  'cello  may  take  the  bass  part  alone, 
as  in  the  scene  of  Agatha's  prayer  in  "  Der 
Freischiitz." 

The  'cello  is  by  no  means  limited  to  this 
drudgery,  but  frequently  has  an  independent 
part.  Schubert,  in  the  andante  of  his  great 
C-major  symphony,  divides  his  'cellos  into  two 


OTHER   BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  93 

parts.  Cherubini,  in  the  soprano  scena  at  the 
opening  of  his  "  Faniska,"  writes  three  real  parts 
for  the  instrument.  Rossini,  in  the  overture  of 
his  "  WiUiam  Tell,"  scores  a  long  passage  for  no 
less  than  five  solo  'cellos,  though  this  is  now  gen- 
erally arranged  for  one.  Wagner,  the  great 
master  of  divided  orchestration,  does  not  hesitate 
to  apply  this  method  to  the  'cellos,  writing  as 
many  as  five  parts  at  times  in  "  Die  Walkiire," 
and  four,  with  other  strings  divisi^  in  "  Siegfried." 
In  combination  with  the  voice,  the  'cello  is  espe- 
cially effective  in  obbligato  parts,  and  its  use  in 
this  manner  in  the  air,  "  Be  thou  faithful  unto 
death,"  in  Mendelssohn's  "  St.  Paul,"  is  worthy 
of  the  highest  praise. 

'Cello  playing  was  of  slow  growth,  as  for  a  long 
time  the  old  six-stringed  viola  da  gamba  kept  the 
newer  instrument  out  of  orchestral  and  chamber 
music.  But  the  more  powerful  tone  of  the  'cello 
was  needed  to  support  the  brilliancy  of  the  violins, 
and  in  the  time  of  Corelli  and  Tartini  we  find  it 
in  definite  use  for  accompaniments.  Gradually  it 
became  a  solo  instrument,  and  gained  prominence 
in  the  string  quartet  under  Haydn  and  Bocche- 
rini.  With  the  advent  of  the  French  player 
Duport  came  another  advance,  his  introduction 


94  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  the  chromatic  fingering  marking  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  the  'cello.  So  well  did  this  per- 
former play,  that  Voltaire,  enraptured  by  the 
expressive  tones  that  he  drew  from  the  unwieldly 
instrument,  said  to  him,  "  You  make  me  believe 
in  miracles ;  for  you  can  make  a  nightingale  out 
of  an  ox."  In  the  last  century  the  great  virtuosi 
have  taken  pride  in  performing  on  the  'cello  the 
most  difficult  violin  pieces,  such  as  Tartini's 
"  Trille  du  Diable,"  for  instance.  The  most 
wonderful  master  of  the  'cello  was  by  all  odds 
Adrien  Fran9ois  Servais,  who  died  in  1866. 
Under  his  large  and  vigorous  hand  the  'cello 
vibrated  with  the  utmost  facility  of  expression  ; 
never,  before  his  appearance,  had  it  yielded  such 
effects,  and  his  compositions  remain  as  illustra- 
tions of  the  most  marvellous  instrumental  art, 
comparable  only  to  those  of  Paganini  for  the 
violin. 

The  contrabass,  or  double-bass  (violone  in  Ital- 
ian), is  the  largest  and  deepest  of  all  the  stringed 
instruments.  Its  size,  familiar  to  concert  audi- 
ences, may  be  further  illustrated  by  the  old  Eng- 
lish custom  of  giving  trios  with  one  of  these 
instruments,  the  performer  adding  a  second  part 
with  his  own  voice,  while  a  boy  concealed  in  the 


OTHER   BOWED   INSTRUMENTS 


95 


body  of  the  instrument  sang  a  treble  part.     The 
work  of  the  contrabass  in  doubhng  the  part  of 
the   'cello,   an   octave   deeper,   has   already   been 
mentioned ;  but   while   the 
latter  serves  as  a  bass  for 
the  strings  alone,  the  former 
fulfils  that  function  for  the 
entire  orchestra. 

There  are  two  kinds  of 
contrabasses,    those    with 
three     strings,    and    those 
with     four.       The     three- 
stringed    ones    are    used 
chiefly  in  England,  though 
other   countries    employ 
them     also.       The     four- 
stringed  basses  are  the  in- 
struments    found     in     the 
orchestra.     The  tuning  of 
the     instrument     varies 
according  to  the  nationality 
of  the  player.     The    four- 
stringed    bass    is    generally    strung    in     fourths, 
giving  the  tones  E,  i\,  D,  and  G  in  ascending 
order.     The  lowest  tone  is  nearlv  three  octaves 
below  middle  C,  thus  sounding  the  lowest  E  on 


CONTRABASS 


96  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

the  piano.  The  contrabass  is  the  first  example 
yet  discussed  of  a  transposing  instrument,  its 
notes  being  written  an  octave  higher  than  they 
actually  sound,  to  prevent  the  use  of  too  many 
leger  lines.  It  is  of  course  notated  in  the  bass 
clef  Its  compass  runs  from  its  lowest  tone  to 
A  below  middle  C  —  about  two  and  a  half 
octaves. 

Berlioz,  in  his  treatise  on  orchestration,  advises 
conductors  to  have  half  their  basses  tuned  to  E, 
G,  D,  and  A,  thus  placing  more  open  tones  at 
their  command  than  if  all  the  basses  were  tuned 
alike.  Special  tunings  are  sometimes  adopted 
for  single  passages.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
"  Rheingold,"  for  example,  Wagner  directs  his 
basses  to  tune  their  lowest  string  to  E-flat,  to 
sustain  a  long  bass  tone  in  that  key,  while  above 
it  flow  the  waving  chord-arpeggios  that  give  such 
a  marvellous  picture  of  the  measured  motion  in 
the  depths  of  the  Rhine.  In  "Tristan,"  in  the 
second  act,  two  double-basses  are  directed  to  tune 
as  low  as  C-sharp  for  a  short  time.  Beethoven, 
in  the  sixth  (Pastoral)  symphony,  has  written  as 
low  as  C  in  one  instance,  a  fact  which  led  the  Ger- 
man Karl  Otho  to  invent  a  five-stringed  instru- 
ment with  C  for  its  lowest  tone.      Many  players 


OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  97 

tune  their  fourth  string  down  to  D  as  a  regu- 
lar procedure.  The  three-stringed  instrument  is 
tuned  to  A,  D,  and  G  in  England,  but  many  Con- 
tinental players  tune  it  in  fifths,  an  octave  below 
the  three  upper  strings  of  the  'cello.  The  tuning 
in  fourths  is  preferable,  however,  for  the  finger- 
ing is  much  more  practicable  in  this  case.  Owing 
to  the  size  of  the  neck,  the  thumb  cannot  reach 
around  to  the  strings  as  on  the  'cello.  The 
thickness  of  the  strings  demands  great  strength 
in  stopping  them. 

The  tone-colour  of  the  contrabass  is  heavy, 
gruff,  and  ponderous.  It  may  also  be  used  with 
telling  effect  in  solo  passages  to  give  ominous 
significance.  It  has  also  been  skilfully  used  in 
burlesquing  the  quicker  effects  of  lighter  instru- 
ments. The  technical  points  of  execution  are  as 
a  rule  similar  to  those  of  the  violin,  although 
there  are  some  important  exceptions.  Thus 
double-stopping,  which  becomes  difficult  on  the 
'cello,  is  almost  impossible  on  the  contrabass 
unless  one  of  the  strings  gives  an  open  tone.  In 
orchestral  work  the  effect  is  obtained  by  dividing 
the  basses  into  parts,  as  for  instance  in  Meyer- 
beer's "  Dinorah,"  or  the  beginning  of  Tschai- 
kowsky's  Pathetic  Symphony.     The  performance 


98  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  swift  passages  can  never  be  entirely  clear,  as 
the  long,  thick  strings  are  slow  to  cease  vibrating. 
In  Mendelssohn's  it 4th  Psalm,  for  example,  are 
many  bars  in  which  the  contrabass  plays  six- 
teenth-notes at  a  metronome  mark  of  116  for 
the  quarter-note.  Such  rapid  work  can  never 
be  wholly  effective.  Harmonics  are  of  little 
value,  although  we  find  Verdi  using  them  com- 
bined with  those  of  the  'cello,  in  the  passage 
from  "Aida"  already  mentioned.  Artificial,  or 
stopped,  harmonics  are  wholly  impracticable. 
Mutes  are  seldom  employed  on  the  double-bass, 
as  they  produce  little  or  no  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  tone.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
peated notes  and  tremolo  are  remarkably  good, 
the  latter  being  especially  portentous  in  effect. 

Solo  playing  on  the  contrabass  wins  applause 
rather  for  the  skill  displayed  than  for  the  actual 
music  drawn  from  the  instrument.  The  effect 
is  not  unlike  that  produced  by  an  elephant  who 
has  been  trained  to  dance.  The  performance  is 
often  successful,  and  elicits  the  admiration  of  its 
audience,  but  after  it  is  over  there  still  remains  a 
lingering  suspicion  that  there  was  no  necessity 
for  such  feats  of  agility.  Many  solo  players 
have   existed,    however,    especially    in    England, 


OTHER  BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  99 

where  the  three-stringed  double-bass  tuned  in 
fourths  made  matters  as  easy  as  possible  for  the 
artists.  The  most  famous  performers  upon  the 
instrument  were  Dragonetti  and  Bottesini.  Dra- 
gonetti  possessed  a  remarkably  fine  contrabass, 
upon  which  he  would  create  almost  impossible 
effects.  It  was  with  this  instrument  that  he 
scared  the  monks  of  San  Giustina,  at  Padua,  by 
imitating  a  thunder-storm  with  such  fidelity  that 
he  brought  them  out  of  their  cells  in  the  dead  of 
night. 

Owing  to  its  deep  pitch  and  comparatively 
monotonous  tone-colour,  the  contrabass  is  not 
often  used  as  a  solo  instrument  in  the  orchestra. 
Almost  the  only  example  of  its  employment  in 
this  manner  is  Mozart's  bass  song,  "  Per  questa 
bella  mano,"  in  which  the  voice  part  is  accom- 
panied throughout  by  an  obbligato  for  the  instru- 
ment. This  obbligato  part  is  extremely  curious. 
It  is  written  altogether  in  the  G  clef,  and  not 
only  rises  to  an  extraordinary  height,  but  con- 
tains much  double-stopping,  and  even  chords, 
which  are  declared  wholly  impossible  bv  some  of 
the  most  eminent  double-bass  players  of  the 
present.  In  one  of  the  chords  is  a  tone  which, 
by  its   relation   to   the   others,  must  indicate  an 


lOO  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

open  string,  and  from  this  it  appears  as  if  the 
part  sounded  lower  than  written  by  two  octaves 
instead  of  one.  There  is  no  real  clue  to  the 
solution  of  this  problem  to-day,  but  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  the  entire  part  was  written  for  a 
smaller  instrument  than  the  one  now  in  use, 
with  shorter  strings  and  different  fingering. 
Such  reductions  in  size  are  not  unknown,  for 
Bottesini  used  to  play  his  solos  on  a  smaller 
instrument  than  that  used  in  the  orchestra. 

The  pizzicato  on  the  contrabass  is  of  excellent 
quality,  the  long  strings  sustaining  the  tone  for 
some  time.  A  well-known  example  of  this  is 
found  in  the  sombre  A,  for  contrabasses  pizzi- 
cato, which  follows  the  melodious  horn  quartet 
in  the  "  Freischiitz  "  overture,  and  immediately 
changes  the  romantic  effect  to  one  of  gloom. 
Rossini,  in  his  overture  to  "  William  Tell," 
divides  his  instruments  and  obtains  an  effect 
of  pizzicato  and  bowing  combined.  Another 
famous  passage  for  basses  pizzicato  is  found  in 
the  "  Symphonie  Fantastique  "  of  Berlioz,  where 
the  hero,  after  killing  his  love  in  a  fit  of  jeal- 
ousy, is  marched  to  the  scaffold  amid  the 
sound  of  threatening  four-part  chords  on  those 
instruments. 


OTHER   BOWED  INSTRUMENTS  10 1 

The  possibilities  of  the  contrabass  were  recog- 
nised before  the  classical  period,  as  may  be  seen 
from  Bach's  use  of  it  in  "  Ye  Lightnings  !  Ye 
Thunders ! "  In  the  opera  of  "  Orpheus," 
Gluck  employs  it  with  telling  effect  in  a 
glissando  passage  that  gives  an  excellent  imi- 
tation of  the  barking  of  Cerberus.  But  the 
first  composer  to  bring  it  into  prominence  was 
Beethoven.  In  his  fourth  symphony,  at  the 
very  end  of  the  last  movement,  is  a  rapid  pas- 
sage for  the  instrument  that  demands  all  the 
performer's  skill.  Orchestral  players  save  them- 
selves all  through  this  symphony  in  order  to  put 
forth  their  best  efforts  in  the  finale,  for  this  sym- 
phony, like  a  wasp,  bears  its  sting  in  its  tail. 

When  the  composition  first  came  out,  the 
mercurial  Weber,  who  was  often  at  odds  with 
the  more  serious  and  irascible  Beethoven,  wrote 
a  graphic  satire  on  this  passage,  in  a  musical 
periodical  of  the  time.  He  placed  the  scene  in 
a  concert-hall,  just  after  the  close  of  a  Beethoven 
programme  including  the  fourth  symphony. 
After  the  departure  of  the  musicians,  the  instru- 
ments themselves  came  to  life,  and  began  to  hold 
an  indignation  meeting  in  protest  against  the 
ruthless   composer  who   forced   them    so    merci- 


I02  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

lessly  to  do  all  sorts  of  new  tricks.  After  the 
piccolo,  the  flute,  and  others  had  aired  their 
grievances,  the  contrabass  arose  gravely  to  re- 
mark :  "  Your  troubles  are  of  little  moment,  and 
can  easily  be  borne  ;  but  what  do  you  think  of 
mine?  Instead  of  allowing  me  to  proceed  in  a 
staid  and  orderly  manner,  as  befits  my  dignity, 
this  intolerable  young  composer  makes  me  run 
and  skip,  and  jump  about  in  the  craziest  manner, 
just  as  if  I  were  a  giddy  young  violin."  At  this 
the  instruments  burst  out  in  wild  cries  of  anger, 
causing  such  an  uproar  that  the  janitor  heard  the 
noise  and  came  back  into  the  hall.  On  realis- 
ing the  situation,  he  commanded  the  instruments 
to  stop  their  turmoil  instantly,  or  he  would  get 
Mr.  Beethoven  to  write  another  symphony.  At 
this  the  tumult  ceased,  for  the  assembled  instru- 
ments at  once  grew  mute  with  terror. 

Beethoven's  usual  reply  to  adverse  criticism 
consisted  of  about  equal  parts  of  personal  abuse 
and  profanity.  But  he  was  always  true  to  his 
ideas  of  art,  and  whenever  he  was  attacked  for 
what  he  deemed  right,  his  usual  reply  was  to 
"  do  it  again,  and  do  it  harder."  We  find  him 
adopting  the  same  plan  in  this  case,  and  rapid 
contrabass    passages,   so    scathingly    criticised    in 


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OTHER  BOWED   INSTRUMENTS  IO3 

the  fourth  symphony,  occur  again  in  the  trio 
of  the  scherzo  of  the  fifth.  In  the  Pastoral 
Symphony,  to  produce  the  effect  of  the  rumbhng 
of  thunder  in  a  storm,  Beethoven  adopted  the 
ingenious  plan  of  unitmg  the  contrabass  with 
the  'cello,  and  having  the  former  play  groups 
of  four  notes  while  the  latter  played  groups  of 
five  in  the  same  time.  Thunder-storms  seem 
to  be  a  most  popular  subject  with  the  great 
composers,  and  we  find  examples  of  orchestral 
tempests  in  the  works  of  Haydn,  Berlioz,  St. 
Saens,  Verdi,  and  many  others  besides  Beethoven. 
In  the  eighth  symphony,  Beethoven  produced 
another  effect  from  the  instrument,  this  time 
one  of  inimitable  humour.  That  entire  sym- 
phony is  overflowing  with  examples  of  the  most 
delightful  gaiety,  and  not  the  least  among  them 
is  the  passage  in  the  last  movement,  where  a 
graceful,  tripping  little  theme  of  a  few  notes 
is  tossed  about  from  fiute  to  violin,  and  finally 
given  a  brusque  imitation  with  all  the  ponderous 
force  of  the  contrabass. 

Most  wonderfully  impressive,  however,  is  the 
use  of  this  instrument  in  the  great  ninth  sym- 
phony. Beethoven  was  by  nature  a  lover  of 
liberty,  a   dreamer  of  universal  human  brother- 


I04  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

hood,  and  this  tendency  shows  itself  in  such 
works  as  his  "  Egmont "  overture,  or  the  Eroica 
Symphony.  In  the  ninth  symphony  Beethoven 
aimed  at  nothing  less  than  a  musical  picture  of 
the  contrast  between  the  strife  and  tumult  of  the 
world,  and  the  happiness  of  the  millennium. 
For  his  text  he  took  the  words  of  Schiller's 
"  Ode  to  Joy,"  introducing  voices  to  sing  it  in 
the  closing  movement  of  the  work.  It  is  in  this 
final  movement  of  the  piece  that  the  marvellous 
passages  for  contrabass  are  to  be  found. 

The  earlier  movements  have  had  their  share 
of  beauty  and  tenderness,  but  in  the  opening  of 
the  finale,  turbulence  and  discord  seem  to  obtain 
full  sway.  The  music  appears  to  utter  a  cry  of 
agony,  as  if  to  show  that  all  human  effort  is 
of  no  avail  in  soothing  the  turmoil  of  the  world, 
and  leads  only  to  greater  confusion.  Then  fol- 
lows a  musical  dialogue  between  the  entire  or- 
chestra, on  the  one  hand,  and  the  contrabasses 
on  the  other.  Three  of  the  phrases  of  the 
earlier  movements  return,  as  if  offering  a  remedy 
for  the  evils  depicted.  They  are  interrupted  in 
turn  by  a  phrase  of  solemn  dignity  on  the 
contrabasses  in  unison.  Their  tones  seem  as 
impressive    as    if    they    were    the    voice    of    a 


OTHER  BOWED   INSTRUMENTS  105 

Redeemer  rebuking  the  passions  of  a  suffering 
world.  After  the  three  recurring  themes  have 
been  reviewed,  two  to  be  hushed  into  silence  by 
the  measured  unison  response,  while  the  third, 
the  gentlest,  shrinks  abashed  into  silence,  the 
song  of  joy  is  to  enter,  showing  that  universal 
brotherhood,  and  not  strife  and  warfare,  is  to  be 
the  true  key  to  happiness.  But  before  the 
voices  begin,  there  must  be  some  preparation  for 
them,  some  gradual  introduction  of  them  into 
the  orchestral  forces.  Again  the  contrabasses 
come  into  use,  and  their  broad,  full  tones  sound 
forth  with  telling  effect  the  impressive  melody 
that  is  to  be  taken  up  afterward  by  the  voice  part. 
The  rest  of  the  movement  consists  of  varia- 
tions on  the  theme,  for  voice  and  orchestra. 
But  Beethoven  was  essentially  an  Instrumental 
composer,  and  wrote  for  the  voice  as  if  it  were 
insensible  of  the  fatigue  consequent  upon  human 
efforts.  As  a  result,  a  perfect  performance  of 
the  choral  part  is  somewhat  rare,  although  the 
auditor  is  compelled  to  admire  the  magnificence 
of  its  conception.  There  is  no  such  drawback 
to  the  contrabass  work,  however,  and  the  pas- 
sages for  it  remain  an  example  of  the  noblest  use 
of  this  instrument. 


CHAPTER   V. 


THE    HARP 


Among  those  instruments  whose  strings  are 
set  in  motion  by  plucking,  the  most  important, 
as  well  as  the  most  ancient,  is  the  harp.  Its 
origin  from  the  bows  of  savages  has  already  been 
described ;  and  the  nanga,  a  typical  form  of  the 
negro  harp,  is  shaped  almost  exactly  like  a  bow, 
with  five  strings  instead  of  one.  The  harp  is 
found  among  nearly  every  ancient  race  that  pos- 
sessed any  instruments,  and  almost  always  its 
frame  consists  of  one  large  curved  piece  with  the 
longest  string  running  from  end  to  end.  An  ex- 
ception to  this  form  is  found  upon  the  Assyrian 
bas-reliefs,  where  the  harp  is  pictured  with  a 
slanting  frame,  slightly  curved,  from  which  the 
strings  run  vertically  to  a  horizontal  bar.  The 
Egyptian  harp  possesses  the  curved  form,  and 
the  Hebrew  harp,  or  kinnor,  was  probably  a  copy 
of  it,  although  Kalkbrenner  ascribes  the  form  of 


1 06 


THE   HARP  107 

a  triangle  to  it.  The  number  of  strings  was 
variously  given  as  from  ten  to  thirty-two,  show- 
ing different  sizes,  and  probably  different  shapes. 
The  Greek  word  kithara  is  translated  indiffer- 
ently by  the  terms  lyre,  lute,  or  guitar,  as  well  as 
harp. 

The  Irish  claim  to  have  originated  the  harp, 
and  Galilei  credits  them  with  its  invention,  but 
the  Assyrian  instruments  were  certainly  of  earlier 
date.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  was  probably  the 
Irish  harp  that  was  brought  back  to  Italy  by  the 
Roman  legions  returning  from  Britain,  and  its 
use  in  the  Apulian  city  of  Arpi  possibly  gave 
the  instrument  its  name.'  The  nations  of  North- 
ern Europe  adopted  it  from  Rome,  and  have 
practically  one  name  for  it,  while  the  terms  ap- 
plied to  it  by  ancient  races  are  entirely  dissimilar. 

The  Irish  harp  was  strung  in  three  rows,  the 
two  outer  ones  of  twenty-nine  strings  each,  giving 
the  diatonic  scale  in  unison,  while  the  middle  set 
of  twenty  gave  the  chromatic  intervals.  There 
were  other  forms  of  the  instrument,  and  from 
one  of  these  came  the  "  arpa  doppia,"  or  double 
harp,   found   in    Monteverde's    "  Orfeo."       The 

'  Max  Miiller,  however,  gives  a  Teutonic  origin  for  the  term 
"  harp." 


I08  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

triple    form    existed    down    to    the    end    of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  harp  was  a  favourite  instrument  with  the 
ancient  Britons.  The  old  laws  of  Wales  mention 
its  use  as  one  of  the  three  things  necessary  to 
distinguish  a  freeman  or  gentleman  from  a  slave. 
Pretenders  were  discovered  by  their  unskilful- 
ness  in  playing  the  instrument.  The  laws  also 
forbade  a  slave  to  touch  a  harp,  even  from  mere 
curiosity,  and  none  but  the  king,  his  musicians, 
and  the  gentlemen  of  the  realm  were  allowed 
to  possess  one.  The  harp  was  exempt  from  seiz- 
ure for  debt,  for  it  was  presumed  that  the  man 
who  had  no  harp  had  lost  his  position  and  was 
degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  slave. 

The  Eistedfodds,  or  periodical  gatherings  of 
musicians  in  Wales,  are  no  longer  anything  miore 
than  festival  concerts  or  competitions.  But  in 
the  ancient  days  they  were  of  national  impor- 
tance. Only  those  bards  who  had  reached  the 
rank  of  chief  minstrel  were  permitted  to  teach, 
and  one  of  them  presided  at  the  assembly. 
Candidates  were  presented  by  a  chief  minstrel, 
who  had  to  vouch  for  them,  and  they  were  re- 
quired to  pass  a  novitiate  of  three  years  for  en- 
trance, and  several  other  periods  of  three  years 


THE   HARP  109 

for  the  higher  degrees.  Such  a  gathering  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  the  seventh  century.  The 
harp  was  famiHar  to  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the 
early  chronicles  show  that  the  minstrel  was  al- 
ways respected  for  his  skill,  whether  he  was 
known  or  unknown.  With  harp  in  hand  he 
might  wander  freely,  even  in  the  camp  of  an 
enemy.  As  early  as  495,  Colgrin,  besieged  in 
York,  received  assistance  from  his  brother,  who 
went  through  the  hostile  camp  disguised  as  a 
harper.  The  story  of  King  Alfred's  adoption 
of  the  same  artifice,  in  his  struggles  with  the 
Danes  four  hundred  years  later,  is  well  known, 
although  its  authenticity  may  be  doubted. 

Bede  states  that  it  was  the  custom  at  festive 
occasions  to  hand  the  harp  around  for  each  guest 
to  sing  and  play  in  turn.  Once  the  poet  Caed- 
mon,  who  had  neglected  music  in  pursuit  of  more 
serious  studies,  found  himself  in  such  a  gathering, 
but  being  unable  to  play  in  his  turn,  felt  too 
humiliated  to  remain,  and  arose  from  the  table 
in  shame  and  returned  to  his  house. 

The  German  Minnesingers  made  constant  use 
of  the  harp,  employing  it  to  accompany  their 
songs  in  place  of  the  guitar  favoured  by  the 
troubadours.      An   illustration  of  the  effect  pro- 


no  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

duced  is  to  be  found  in  "  Tannhauser,"  where 
Wagner  makes  the  knight  Wolfram  sing  with 
harp  accompaniment  a  solo  of  homage  to  the 
saintly  Elisabeth,  and  uses  the  instrument  to 
accompany  all  the  contestants  in  their  competition 
on  the  Wartburg. 

In  Great  Britain  the  introduction  of  the  gui- 
tar, and  other  light  instruments,  such  as  the  lute 
and  viol,  diminished  the  popularity  of  the  harp, 
while  the  virginals  and  harpsichord  drove  it  still 
further  into  obscurity.  It  existed,  however,  in 
the  rural  districts,  and  kept  its  ancient  form. 
When  Handel  produced  his  oratorio  "  Esther," 
in  1720,  he  inserted  harp  parts  for  one  of  the 
choruses,  which  were  performed  by  two  Welsh 
players. 

In  the  old  diatonic  harps,  the  performer  could 
modulate  only  by  using  his  thumb  to  stop  the 
strings  and  alter  their  pitch.  The  invention  of 
pedals  to  perform  this  function  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  Hochbrucker,  in  1720,  and  to  Paul 
Velter,  in  1730.  These  early  pedals  were  crude 
and  awkward,  but  they  paved  the  way  for  later 
improvements. 

The  historian  Burney,  in  his  travels  (i773)> 
mentions  the  harp  as  much  played  on  by  ladies, 


THE   HARP  III 

and  describes  it  as  follows:  "It  is  a  sweet  and 
becoming  instrument,  and,  by  means  of  the  pedals 
for  the  half  notes,  is  less  cumbrous  and  unwieldy 
than  our  double  Welsh  harp.  The  compass  is 
from  double  B-flat  to  F  in  altissimo ;  it  is  capable 
of  great  expression,  and  of  executing  whatever 
can  be  played  upon  the  harpsichord ;  there  are 
but  thirty-three  strings  upon  it,  which,  except  the 
last,  are  the  mere  natural  notes  of  the  diatonic 
scale ;  the  rest  are  made  by  the  feet."  The 
pedals  mentioned  here,  Burney  explains,  were 
those  invented  by  M.  Simon,  of  Brussels,  about 
1758.  They  were  useful  in  more  ways  than  one  ; 
for  by  reducing  the  number  of  strings  they  im- 
proved the  remaining  tones,  as  the  sounding- 
board  could  vibrate  more  freely  in  consequence 
of  its  having  less  weight  to  carry.  The  harp  in 
this  form  was  much  used  by  the  composer  Gluck, 
especially  to  play  the  part  of  the  lyre  in  the 
hands  of  his  operatic  hero  Orpheus.  Mozart, 
too,  employed  the  instrument,  writing  among 
other  works  a  concerto  for  flute  and  harp. 

But  the  modern  concert  harp  is  due  to  the 
work  of  Sebastian  Erard  (or  Erhardt),  who  per- 
fected it  in  the  year  18 10.  His  earliest  efforts 
date  back  to  1786,  and  were  devoted  to  improv- 


112  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

ing  the  single-action  pedal.  In  1801  he  produced 
a  double-action  harp,  but  it  was  not  until  nine 
years  later  that  he  perfected  his  contrivance  and 
created  the  model  that  all  harp-makers  have  fol- 
lowed since  his  day.     The  frame  of  the  modern 

harp  consists  of  the  gracefully 
curved  neck,  from  which  the 
strings  descend  to  the  slanting 
sound-board,  while  the  verti- 
cal pillar  forms  the  third 
side  of  the  triangle.  Erard's 
mechanism  consists  of  pedals, 
placed  in  a  semicircle  about 
the  foot  of  the  pillar.  These 
communicate  their  motion 
to  rods  in  the  pillar,  which 
in  turn  move  levers  in  the 
neck.  Connected  with  these 
levers  are  two  sets  of  discs, 
and  from  each  disc  project 
two  pins  which  allow  the  string  to  pass  between 
them.  Two  discs,  one  from  each  set,  are  thus 
ready  to  clasp  each  string.  A  half-way  motion  of 
the  pedals  causes  the  discs  to  rotate  slightly,  the 
first  disc  of  the  two  gripping  the  string  with  its 
pins,  and  raising  the  pitch  a  semitone.     A  further 


ERARD    HARP 


THE  HARP  113 

movement  of  the  pedals  causes  the  second  disc 
to  act,  raising  the  pitch  another  semitone.  Notches 
are  provided,  so  that  the  pedals  may  be  set  to 
stay  in  either  position  ;  when  not  in  these  notches, 
the  pedals  are  forced  back  by  springs. 

There  are  seven  pedals  to  alter  the  pitch  on 
the  harp ;  an  eighth  one  acts  merely  like  the 
damper  pedal  of  the  piano,  but  is  so  unimportant 
that  it  is  often  omitted.'  The  strings  give  the 
seven  tones  of  the  diatonic  scale,  but  are  tuned 
altogether  in  flats,  giving  the  key  of  C-flat.  Each 
pedal  acts  only  on  one  note  of  the  scale,  one 
pedal  for  example  influencing  all  the  C-strings. 
When  all  the  pedals  are  set  half-way,  the  harp  is 
in  the  key  of  C-natural.  With  all  the  pedals  in 
the  second  notch,  the  instrument  gives  the  scale 
of  C-sharp.  There  are  forty-six  strings  on  the 
harp,  giving  it  a  compass  from  the  lowest  C-flat 
to  the  highest  F  of  the  piano,  —  six  and  a  half 
octaves.  To  aid  the  performer,  all  the  C-strings 
are  coloured  red,  and  all  the  F-strings  blue.  As 
the  action  of  the  pedals  fixes  the  key,  there  is  no 
other  change  needed,  and  the  different  scale- 
fingering  of  the  piano  keys  does  not  find  a  par- 

'  It  operates  by  shutting  a  set  of  open  gates  in  the  sound-box, 
thus  confining  the  air  and  preventing  its  free  vibration. 


114  ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 

allel  on  the  harp.  The  performer  sits  with  the 
pillar  of  the  instrument  away  from  him,  and 
extends  his  arms  on  both  sides  of  the  strings.  As 
he  has  two  hands,  his  music  must  be  written  on 
two  staffs,  the  G  and  F  clefs  being  used  precisely 
as  with  the  piano.  Long  passages  for  the  lower 
strings  are  impracticable,  for  two  reasons,  —  first, 
these  strings  are  too  thick  to  sound  well,  and 
second,  the  performer  will  soon  be  wearied  by 
the  long  stretch  for  his  arms.  It  is  also  best  to 
write  for  the  harp  in  fiat  keys  if  possible,  as  the 
open  strings  give  better  tones  than  the  stopped 
ones.  Thus  Prout,  in  his  cantata  "  Alfred,"  does 
not  write  the  harp  part  in  F-sharp,  the  key  of  the 
piece,  but  in  G-fiat,  which  is  the  same  thing  in 
our  tempered  scale.  This  change  implies  only  a 
half-way  movement  of  the  F-pedal,  while  in  the 
sharp  key  all  seven  pedals  would  have  to  be 
moved,  and  all  full  distance  except  the  F.  In  his 
work  on  instrumentation,  M.  Gevaert  draws  at- 
tention to  a  long  harp  passage  in  "  Faust,"  in 
the  key  of  B  major,  which  would  have  sounded 
much  better  and  been  more  practical  in  the  key 
of  C-flat,  for  the  same  reason.  Another  point  to 
be  avoided  by  composers  is  the  quick  use  of  ex- 
cessive modulation,  for  the  performer  needs  time 


THE   HARP  115 

to  produce  the  necessary  changes  in  the  position 
of  his  pedals.  Prout,  in  his  book  on  the  orches- 
tra, quotes  a  long  passage  from  the  final  scene  of 
"  Die  Walkiire  "  as  an  example  of  how  not  to 
write  for  the  harp.  It  is  a  descending  sequence 
of  sixteenth  notes,  with  a  semitone  between  each 
group.  Of  wonderful  beauty  in  aiding  to  pic- 
ture the  onward  creeping  of  Loke's  magic  fire, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  perform,  and  one  of 
the  best  London  harpists  had  to  practise  it  an 
hour  a  day  for  some  weeks  before  he  was  able  to 
play  it  in  the  Richter  concerts. 

With  the  exception  of  chromatic  passages, 
nearly  everything  suitable  for  piano  will  sound 
well  on  the  harp  also.  As  the  little  finger  is 
never  used,  chords  for  one  hand  should  not  con- 
tain more  than  four  notes.  Chord-effects  are 
among  the  very  best  that  the  instrument  pro- 
duces. The  name  arpeggio  itself,  applied  to 
sweeping  chords  on  any  instrument,  shows  clearly 
its  derivation  from  the  harp.  The  arpeggio 
refers  to  a  quick  run,  and  not  to  a  chord  with  all 
its  notes  struck  at  the  same  time.  By  alternating 
his  hands,  the  performer  can  run  rapidly  to  and  fro 
over  the  whole  compass  of  the  instrument.  In 
writing,  the  arpeggio  should  be  properly  divided 


Il6  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

between  the  hands,  and  if  the  composer  Is  not 
himself  a  player,  he  had  better  leave  this  to  the 
discretion  of  the  artist. 

Very  beautiful  results  are  obtained  by  the  use 
of  harmonics  of  the  harp.  They  are  not  practi- 
cable throughout  its  entire  compass,  for  the  high- 
est strings  are  not  resonant  enough,  and  the 
lowest  are  too  thick.  But  on  all  the  others  the 
quality  of  the  harmonics  is  excellent,  giving  a 
peculiarly  clear  tone  that  compares  well  with 
those  from  the  bowed  instruments.  The  only 
harmonic  used  is  the  first  of  the  series,  giving  an 
octave  above  the  open  tone.  It. is  produced  by 
touching  the  string  very  lightly,  exactly  in  the 
middle,  with  the  ball  of  the  palm,  and  plucking 
the  string  with  the  thumb  or  the  first  finger. 
For  all  open  tones,  the  strings  are  plucked  a  little 
above  the  centre. 

An  abrupt  staccato,  called  etouffe,  is  produced 
with  the  hand  in  a  position  similar  to  that  used 
for  harmonics.  Instead  of  placing  the  palm  on 
the  string  at  once,  however,  the  performer  first 
plucks  it,  and  then  stops  the  tone  by  pressing 
hard  instead  of  lightly  with  his  hand.  The  usual 
method  of  stopping  all  tones,  after  they  have 
sounded    long    enough,    is    laying   the   extended 


THE   HARP  117 

hand  upon  them.  The  poet  Longfellow,  in  his 
"  Golden  Legend,"  has  made  a  beautiful  simile 
by  alluding  to  this  point  in  the  lines : 

"  Time  hath  laid  his  hand  upon  my  heart 
Gently,  not  smiting  it, 
But  as  the  harper  lays  his  open  palm 
Upon  the  strings,  to  deaden  their  vibrations." 

If  the  harp  strings  are  plucked  near  the  ends 
instead  of  just  above  the  middle,  more  overtones 
are  formed.  The  thin,  penetrating  tones  thus 
obtained  have  a  quality  somewhat  resembling 
that  of  a  guitar. 

Trills  upon  the  harp  are  perfectly  possible, 
but  they  are  not  strong  enough  for  any  especial 
value  to  be  attached  to  them,  and  are  usually 
given  to  other  instruments.  The  much-used 
glissando  of  the  harp  is  not,  like  that  of  the  vio- 
lin, a  continuous  change  of  tone,  but  is  a  quick 
scale  produced  by  a  rapid  motion  of  the  per- 
former's hand  across  the  strings. 

A  tremolo,  or  repetition  of  a  single  note,  may 
be  easily  produced  by  tuning  two  adjacent  strings 
together.  As  may  be  seen,  from  the  description 
of  the  pedals,  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  the 
notes   D,   G,   or  A  with  more  than  one  string; 


Il8  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

but  every  other  tone  of  the  chromatic  scale  may 
be  reached  by  two  strings.  Thus  for  instance 
C-sharp,  obtainable  from  the  C-string,  is  the  same 
as  D-flat  on  the  D-string.  Two  strings  thus 
toned  together  give  what  are  called  synonyms, 
or  homophones.  By  using  each  of  the  single 
tones  D,  G,  or  A  in  turn,  and  tuning  the  others 
in  pairs  at  intervals  of  a  minor  third  apart,  it  is 
possible  for  the  player  to  produce,  upon  any 
degree  of  the  scale,  a  succession  of  minor  thirds 
forming  the  chord  of  the  diminished  seventh.  A 
glissando  upon  the  harp  will  then  give  that  chord 
instead  of  the  diatonic  scale.  Other  chords  may 
be  formed,  giving  a  variety  of  glissandos. 

The  harp  gives  the  fullest  and  richest  tone  of 
all  plucked  instruments,  and  is  eminently  suited 
for  accompanying  the  voice.  As  it  was  the  best 
instrument  known  to  the  ancients,  they  assigned 
it  a  place  in  their  heaven,  and  it  has  come  down 
to  our  day  as  a  typical  instrument  for  celestial 
effects.  The  orchestra  of  the  present,  however, 
is  capable  of  producing  more  beautiful  music,  and 
Wagner,  the  great  apostle  of  common  sense  in 
opera,  adopted  other  means  to  depict  heavenly 
ecstasy.  In  picturing  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Grail  from    heaven    to  earth,  in    the  prelude  to 


THE   HARP  119 


« 


Lohengrin,"  he  discards  the  harp,  and  uses  four 
solo  violins,  in  harmonics,  combined  with  three 
flutes.  That  Wagner  could  produce  marvellous 
effects  from  the  harp  itself,  when  he  wished,  we 
have  already  seen,  and  shall  see  again. 

The  harp  did  not  appear  in  the  earlier  orches- 
tras. Bach  did  not  use  it,  and  Handel,  after 
some  experiments,  dropped  it  altogether.  It  was 
not  included  in  the  classical  orchestra  of  Haydn, 
and  we  find  Beethoven  employing  it  only  once, 
in  the  "  Prometheus "  overture,  composed  in 
1 801.  Weber  did  not  seem  to  care  for  it  in  the 
least,  and  it  is  not  found  in  any  of  his  operas. 
But  one  German  composer  of  his  time  wrote 
copiously  for  the  instrument,  —  Ludwig  Spohr. 
Perhaps  his  employment  of  it  was  a  matter  of 
domestic  harmony,  as  much  as  of  actual  prefer- 
ence ;  for  he  married  Dorette  Scheidler,  an  ex- 
cellent harpist,  and  wrote  for  her  a  number  of 
sonatas  for  violin  and  harp.  The  composer 
himself  filled  the  part  of  violinist,  while  his 
wife  played  the  harp,  in  their  numerous  tours. 
Schumann,  also,  has  made  effective  use  of  the 
instrument  in  his  cantata  "  Faust." 

If  the  Germans  were  not  especially  fond  of 
the    harp,    the   reverse    is   true    of   the    French. 


120  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

Gounod  has  employed  it  frequently.  Berlioz,  in 
his  "Childe  Harold"  symphony,  has  produced 
an  ingenious  bell  effect  by  the  combination  of 
harp  and  horn,  the  harp  giving  the  twang  while 
the  horn  adds  resonance.  For  a  higher  bell,  in 
the  same  work,  he  has  used  the  harp  with  flute 
and  clarinet,  while  in  his  "Faust"  he  gives  free 
rein  to  his  passion  for  wholesale  effects,  and 
demands  ten  harps.  Meyerbeer,  in  "  Le  Pro- 
phete,"  supports  the  voice  in  one  passage  by  two 
harps  in  separate  parts,  obtaining  richer  effects 
than  those  of  Brahms,  for  instance,  who  doubled 
the  harps  in  unison  in  his  requiem.  St.  Saens, 
in  his  "  Danse  Macabre,"  opens  the  riotous  pro- 
ceedings of  the  skeletons  with  the  twelve  strokes 
of  midnight,  sounded  upon  the  harp.  Crossing 
the  English  Channel,  we  find  Cowen  using  the 
instrument  to  add  local  colour  to  his  Welsh 
Symphony. 

Wagner's  use  of  the  harp  in  the  Magic  Fire 
music  has  already  been  mentioned  ;  even  more 
difficult,  and  if  possible  more  beautiful,  is  the 
harp  passage  at  the  end  of  the  "  Rheingold." 
The  gods  have  bought  their  new  abode  of  Wal- 
halla,  and  paid  for  it  with  the  golden  hoard  stolen 
from  the  Rhinedaughters.     As  they  march  upon 


THE   HARP  121 

the  rainbow  bridge  which  spans  the  abyss  and 
leads  them  to  their  new  home,  six  harps  sound 
forth  chords  of  the  most  varied  and  intricate 
description,  interlacing  in  a  way  to  produce  a 
shimmering  mass  of  tone  that  is  absolutely  iri- 
descent in  its  effect. 

The  harp  to-day  is  almost  exactly  the  same  as 
Erard's  model.  Berlioz  mentions  an  alteration 
that  was  proposed  by  Parish  Alvars,  by  which 
the  C,  F,  and  G  strings  were  to  be  given  triple- 
action  pedals.  This  would  enable  them  to 
double  the  notes  D,  G,  and  A,  producing  the 
three  missing  synonyms  on  the  instrument.  But 
the  suggestion  has  not  been  carried  out.  More 
recent  is  the  invention  of  a  chromatic  harp,  made 
by  Pleyel,  Wolff  and  Company,  of  Paris.  This 
harp,  brought  out  in  1898,  has  not  yet  had  time 
to  become  widely  known,  although  its  strings 
must  give  good  tones,  since  they  are  always  open. 
There  are  seventy-eight  strings,  giving  the  same 
compass  as  the  Erard  harp.  They  are  arranged 
in  two  sets,  diatonic  and  chromatic,  which  cross 
each  other  in  the  middle,  instead  of  being  vertical 
as  in  the  old  arpa  doppia.  Some  technical  points 
of  execution  are  impossible  on  this  instrument, 
such  as  chord-glissandos,  for  instance. 


122 


ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 


The  harp  is  the  only  instrument  with  plucked 

strings  that  forms  part 
of  the  orchestra ;  but 
others  exist,  and  are 
sometimes  called  for  in 
large  works.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  the 
guitar,  which  has  six 
strings,  three  of  catgut, 
and  three  lower  ones  of 
silk  wound  with  fine  wire. 
The  guitar  is  tuned  in 
fourths  and  thirds,  giving 
the  notes  E,  A,  D,  G,  B, 
and  E  in  ascending 
order,  starting  with  the 
E  below  middle  C.  But 
it  is  really  a  transposing 
instrument,  sounding  an 
octave  deeper  than  writ- 
ten. For  sharp  keys  it 
may  be  tuned  E,  B,  E, 
G-sharp,  B,  and  E.  Its 
compass  is  given  as  three 
octaves  and  a  minor  third.  The  guitar  is  fingered 
with  the  left  hand,  the  neck  being  provided  with 


GUITAR 


THE  HARP  123 

frets  to  mark  the  proper  places,  while  the  strings 
are  plucked  by  the  right  hand,  —  the  three  lowest 
by  the  thumb,  the  others  by  three  fingers  in 
order,  while  the  little  finger  rests  on  the  face  of 
the  instrument. 

The  guitar,  which  can  give  most  excellent 
effects  when  handled  properly,  came  near  wreck- 
ing the  success  of  Erard's  harp  in  its  early  days. 
The  harp  was  being  taken  up  by  the  upper 
classes  in  London,  when  suddenly  a  band  of 
Spanish  students  appeared  at  that  capital,  and 
gave  guitar  concerts  that  charmed  all  hearers. 
The  result  was  that  all  London  seemed  ready 
to  forsake  the  harp  and  adopt  the  guitar.  Fore- 
seeing this  disaster,  it  is  said,  Erard  determined 
to  take  immediate  steps  to  avert  it.  He  bought 
at  once  several  hundred  guitars,  and  as  many 
copies  of  a  printed  method  for  playing  them,  and 
distributed  them  among  shop-girls,  waiters,  and 
others  of  humble  station  in  life.  The  result  was 
that  the  richer  and  more  exclusive  classes,  seeing 
the  new  instrument  in  such  vulgar  hands,  speed- 
ily dropped  it  and  returned  to  their  former 
favourite,  the  harp. 

The  guitar  is  eminently  fit  for  accompanying 
the  voice,  and  Rossini  has  used  it  for  this  end 


124 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


in  Almaviva's  air  in  the  "  Barber  of  Seville."     It 

lends  itself  well  to  ar- 
peggio effects,  and  gives 
many  pleasing  harmon- 
ics. A  good  tremolo 
may  be  produced  by  al- 
ternating different  fin- 
gers on  the  same  string. 
Composers  employ  it 
little,  and  when  they  do 
use  it  they  seldom  bring 
out  its  best  possibilities. 
Since  the  introduction  of 
the  pianoforte  into  mu- 
sical homes,  the  use  of 
the  guitar  has  become 
unimportant  except  in 
Spain  and  Italy.  Its 
feeble  resonance  bars  it 
out  of  the  orchestra,  and 
its  nature  makes  it  es- 
sentially a  solo  instru- 
ment. But  its  dreamy 
and  melancholy  character 

is  of  excellent  effect,  and  it  has  a  real  charm  of 

its  own. 


MANDOLIN 


THE   HARP  125 

The  mandolin,  although  thin  and  nasal  in  tone- 
quality,  has  something  appealing  and  original 
about  it,  which  might  occasionally  be  effectively 
used.  There  are  several  kinds  of  mandolins,  of 
which  the  best  possess  eight  strings,  tuned  in 
pairs  to  the  tones  of  the  violin  strings.  The 
lowest  two  are  catgut  covered  with  silver  wire, 
the  next  two  copper,  the  third  pair  steel,  and  the 
highest  strings  catgut.  They  are  not  plucked, 
but  are  played  with  a  pick  or  plectrum.  The 
instrument  can  give  chords,  but  is  more  effective 
in  melodic  passages.  One  of  the  most  noted 
examples  of  its  use  is  found  in  Mozart's  "  Don 
Giovanni,"  where  the  amorous  hero  employs  it 
to  accompany  his  serenade.  This  selection  is 
now  usually  given  to  the  violin,  played  pizzicato. 
This  is  the  passage  that  figures  in  an  anecdote  of 
the  great  violinist  Joachim.  He  was  to  play  it 
on  a  certain  occasion  in  Leipsic,  but  just  before 
his  appearance  some  one  (a  conservatory  pupil, 
it  is  thought)  managed  to  get  at  the  artist's 
instrument  and  place  some  split  peas  in  the 
sounding-box.  Instead  of  the  dainty  pizzicato 
runs,  the  soloist  produced  a  series  of  sudden 
rattlings,  effective  in  their  way,  but  wholly  un- 
expected.    This    incident  gave   a  good   illustra- 


126 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


tion  of  the  fact  that  the  full  violin  tone  is  caused 
by  the  vibrations  of  the  box  rather  than  those  of 

the  strings  ;  but  the  story- 
makes  it  seem  rather 
doubtful  whether  the 
artist  cared  much  for 
acoustical  principles  at 
the  time.  He  never  dis- 
covered the  perpetrator 
of  the  joke. 

A  successor  of  the 
now  obsolete  lute  is  the 
zither,  which  consists  of 
a  rectangular  sounding- 
board  provided  with 
thirty  strings,  which  run 
horizontally  over  it. 
The  lower  strings  are 
played  by  a  pick  on  a 
ring  that  fits  the  per- 
former's thumb,  while  the  upper  ones  are  plucked. 
The  instrument  is  much  used  in  Switzerland. 


CONCERT   ZITHER 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE    FLUTE    AND    PICCOLO 

The  great  antiquity  of  the  flute  has  already- 
been  mentioned.  But  besides  being  one  of  the 
most  ancient,  it  was  one  of  the  most  wide-spread 
and  popular  instruments  of  antiquity.  The 
term  flute,  however,  has  been  used  to  cover  a 
multitude  of  sins  against  precision  in  the  naming 
of  instruments,  and  in  the  old  days  included 
pipes  with  vibrating  reed  tongues,  like  our  clari- 
nets or  oboes,  as  well  as  true  flutes,  which  give 
tones  merely  from  the  vibration  of  the  column  of 
air  in  the  tube. 

The  distinction  between  flute-a-bec  and  trav- 
erse flute  has  always  been  clearly  marked,  the 
former  being  blown  into  directly  by  the  mouth, 
while  the  latter  is  held  sidewise  and  blown  into 
through  a  hole.  Ancient  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
instruments  of  the  flute-a-bec  type  (called  beak 
flute  afterward  in  England,  from  its  fancied  re- 
semblance   to    a    bird's    beak),    existed    in    both 

127 


128  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

single  and  double  forms,  according  to  old  pic- 
tures. The  double  forms  consisted  of  two  tubes 
united  into  one  at  the  mouthpiece,  each  fingered 
by  one  hand.  They  were  capable  of  producing 
two  melodies,  but  it  is  possible  that  one  tube, 
being  often  longer  than  the  other,  gave  a  sort  of 
drone  bass.  The  Greek  flute,  or  aulos,  may 
have  had  its  tubes  tuned  in  two  different  modes. 
The  use  of  instruments  in  the  Grecian  games 
has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  flute  had  its 
share  of  prominence  in  the  'pentathlon  of  the 
Olympic  games,  when  it  served  to  animate  the 
contestants  in  the  five  athletic  sports  of  leaping, 
running,  throwing  the  spear,  throwing  the  discus, 
and  wrestling.  Naturally  it  must  have  been 
played  in  a  violent  manner  for  this  purpose,  and 
it  is  recorded  that  Harmonides,  a  young  flute- 
player,  wishing  to  astonish  the  audience  on  his 
first  appearance,  blew  such  a  tremendous  blast 
that  he  expired  on  the  spot.  It  is  probable  that 
he  burst  a  blood-vessel ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he 
succeeded  in  astonishing  his  hearers.  In  the 
Pythian  games  the  flute  was  put  to  a  more  legiti- 
mate use ;  and  prizes  were  given  for  the  best 
solos  upon  it.  But  this  custom  was  afterward 
discontinued,    for    the    Amphictyons    used    the 


THE  FLUTE   AND  PICCOLO  1 29 

instrument  in  dirges  and  funeral  music,  and  its 
associations  became  too  melanclioly  to  permit  its 
use  in  tlie  games. 

Flute-playing  became  part  of  the  education  of 
the  Grecian  youth.  Players  of  ability  were  held  in 
high  honour,  and  the  art  received  such  an  impetus 
that  different  flute  schools  were  established  in 
Athens,  and  rival  methods  of  playing  and  teach- 
ing existed.  Flutes  were  used  in  almost  every 
place  where  music  was  required.  One  composer 
even  went  so  far  as  to  write  for  flute,  with  kithara 
accompaniment,  a  tone  picture  of  the  combat  of 
Apollo  and  Python,  —  probably  the  earliest  piece 
of  "programme  music"  on  record.  Great  flute- 
players  became  immensely  popular,  and  the  story 
of  their  rivalries  and  the  cliques  that  supported 
them  reads  not  unlike  a  page  from  the  history  of 
our  own  opera  singers.  The  instrument  itself 
was  much  prized,  and  some  flutes  were  sold  for 
as  much  as  three  thousand  dollars  apiece. 

This  popularity  received  a  slight  check,  how- 
ever, about  400  B.  c.  At  that  time  the  young 
and  popular  Alcibiades  declined  absolutely  to 
play  the  instrument,  alleging  as  his  reason  that 
the  large  mouthpiece  would  spoil  the  shape  of 
his  mouth.     As  he  stood  at  the  head  of  the  fash- 


130  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

ionable  as  well  as  the  political  world,  his  decision 
had  wide-spread  effect,  and  all  the  influential 
classes  laid  aside  the  flute.  But  some  ingenious 
maker  overcame  the  difficulty  by  constructing  a 
flute  with  a  smaller  mouthpiece,  which  Alcibiades 
found  more  to  his  taste,  whereupon  the  instru- 
ment resumed  its  place  in  popular  favour. 

In  Sparta  the  flute  led  the  chorus,  and  was  the 
military  instrument,  but  the  inhabitants  disdained 
to  study  music  as  an  art,  and  were  content  merely 
to  discriminate  between  good  and  bad  playing. 
In  some  Ionian  cities,  the  human  victims  were 
led  to  the  sacrifice  or  to  their  execution  accom- 
panied by  the  sound  of  flutes.  This  dead  march, 
called  the  "  Nome  of  Kradias,"  was  said  to  be 
especially  gloomy  in  effect.  In  this  connection 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  Handel  has  employed 
flutes  prominently  in  the  "  Dead  March  "  from 
"  Saul." 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  Athenian  flutists,  re- 
nowned through  Greece  and  Egypt  for  her  wit 
and  beauty  as  well  as  for  her  skill,  was  Lamia. 
Although  born  in  Athens,  she  went  while  young 
to  Alexandria  to  study  her  art,  very  much  as  our 
modern  musicians  go  to  Italy  or  Germany.  She 
was  well  received  at  the  Egyptian  court,  and  was 


THE  FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  131 

detained  there  for  a  long  time.  Captured  by 
Demetrius  Polyorcetes,  she  soon  succeeded  in 
making  him  captive  to  her  charms.  On  her  return 
to  Athens  a  temple  was  built  to  her,  and  she  was 
worshipped  under  the  name  of  Venus  Lamia. 
The  influence  of  her  powerful  adorer  Demetrius 
may  have  had  something  to  do  with  this  deifica- 
tion, but  her  personal  attractions  are  amply  con- 
firmed by  a  portrait  of  her  which  has  been  found 
in  a  signet. 

The  salaries  paid  to  flute-players  were  usually 
very  large.  One  performer,  Nichomachus,  ac- 
quired an  immense  fortune,  which  he  placed 
wholly  in  jewels.  In  the  theatre,  too,  flute- 
players  were  well  paid,  receiving  from  the  director 
or  choregus  more  than  the  singers  of  the  chorus. 
That  this  was  a  large  sum  may  be  seen  from  a 
saying,  current  among  the  Athenians,  that  the 
way  to  ruin  a  man  was  to  get  him  appointed 
choregus. 

In  Egypt,  there  is  a  record  of  a  great  musical 
festival  given  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  at  Alex- 
andria, in  the  year  280  b.  c.  On  this  occasion 
six  hundred  skilled  singers,  kitharists,  and  flutists 
took  part.  There  were  larger  festivals  than  this 
in    ancient    times,   but    none    that    included    the 


13.2  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

skilled  talent  that  was  present  at  this  one.  Ptol- 
emy Physcon,  a  century  or  more  later,  seems  to 
have  patronised  and  enjoyed  flute  music.  This 
amiable  ruler  married  his  brother's  wife,  killed 
his  baby  nephew  (or  stepson)  on  the  wedding- 
day,  afterward  married  his  niece  (or  stepdaugh- 
ter), and  finally  killed  all  the  progeny.  But  he 
still  posed  as  a  lover  of  art,  and  doubtless  enjoyed 
music,  in  spite  of  his  domestic  troubles.  Ptolemy 
Auletes,  father  of  the  renowned  Cleopatra,  re- 
ceived his  surname  of  "  flute-lover "  from  his 
fondness  for  that  instrument.  Although  much 
occupied  by  his  duties  as  ruler,  he  still  found  time 
to  become  a  very  skilful  virtuoso  on  it. 

In  Rome,  the  earliest  temples  were  raised  to 
Ceres  and  Mars,  and  in  both  edifices  the  flute 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  services.  Flute- 
playing  formed  a  part  of  the  worship  of  Mars 
even  in  earlier  times,  among  the  Etrurians.  The 
flute  gradually  came  into  secular  use  also,  and 
became  the  national  instrument  of  the  Romans. 
It  was  called  tibia,  from  its  origin,  tibia  being  the 
name  of  the  shin-bone  from  which  the  earliest 
flutes  were  made.  In  later  times  the  instrument 
assumed  larger  proportions,  was  ornamented  with 
heavy  brass  binding-hoops,  and  had  an  immense 


THE   FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO 


133 


resonance.  It  was  used  by  both  sexes,  but  in 
public,  and  especially  in  the  religious  services, 
was  played  by  men  alone.  It  was  prominent  in 
the  triumphal  processions,  being  employed  at  the 


FLUTE- PLAYING   AT   A    ROMAN    SACRIFICE 

sacrifices  that  usually  graced  those  festive  occa- 
sions. 

The  great  demand  for  flute-music  made  the 
art  of  playing  the  instrument  a  most  remunerative 
one.  The  flute-players  soon  became  numerous 
and  powerful,  and  formed  themselves  into  a 
guild,  or  protective   society.     This   guild  flour- 


134  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

ished  for  several  centuries,  and  enjoyed  many 
privileges.  Valerius  Maximus  has  given  an 
anecdote  which  shows  how  powerful  and  exact- 
ing the  guild  could  afford  to  be. 

One  day,  for  some  reason,  they  were  excluded 
from  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  where  they  had 
been  allowed,  by  ancient  custom,  to  take  their 
meals.  Upon  this  the  entire  guild  left  Rome, 
and  went  to  the  neighbouring  village  of  Tiber. 
This  caused  great  embarrassment  in  the  city,  for 
without  the  musicians  no  religious  service  could 
be  held,  and  no  state  ceremony  properly  con- 
ducted. The  senate  at  once  sent  an  embassy  to 
induce  the  deserters  to  return ;  but  it  was  of  no 
avail,  for  the  angry  musicians  remained  obdurate. 
The  messengers  then  persuaded  the  villagers 
to  give  them  aid  in  secret.  The  inhabitants 
arranged  to  give  a  great  feast  of  welcome  to  the 
flute-players,  but  took  good  care  that  the  guests 
should  be  well  supplied  with  wine.  When  they 
were  wholly  overcome  with  the  liquid  refresh- 
ments, they  were  bundled  into  chariots,  and 
driven  back  to  Rome.  In  return  for  the  trick 
played  upon  them,  they  received  many  new 
privileges,  as  well  as  all  their  old  ones.  They 
were  allowed  to  give  public  performances,  but  at 


THE   FLUTE   AND  PICCOLO  1 35 

these  they  were  always  masked,  the  reason  given 
being  their  shame  at  their  inglorious  return  to 
the  city. 

Flutes  were  used  at  funerals,  but  the  luxury  and 
display  on  these  occasions  became  so  great  that  a 
law  was  passed  limiting  the  number  of  flute-players 
to  ten.  Flutes  were  employed  in  combination  with 
other  instruments,  and  Apuleius  mentions  a 
concert  of  flutes,  kitharas  and  voices,  the  whole 
giving  a  remarkably  sweet  effect.  The  instru- 
ment had  still  another  use,  that  of  a  pitch-pipe, 
and  great  orators  would  usually  have  a  slave 
stand  behind  them  with  a  flute,  to  give  them  the 
proper  pitch  when  their  voices  sank  too  low  or 
became  too  shrill.  Caius  Gracchus  always  em- 
ployed this  aid  in   his  speeches. 

In  the  time  of  the  Empire,  many  new  Instru- 
ments came  into  use,  but  the  flute  retained  its 
importance.  Many  emperors  were  fond  of  it, 
though  it  seems  strange  that  the  most  wicked  of 
them  should  be  the  chief  patrons  of  music. 
Heliogabalus  was  fond  of  dancing  and  singing, 
and  quite  proficient  in  giving  musical  recitations 
with  flute  accompaniment.  Titus  was  a  good 
singer  and  player.  Domitian  and  Vespasian 
both    established    games    in    which     there    were 


136  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

musical  contests  for  prizes.  Caligula  and  Nero 
were  both  fond  of  the  instrument,  though  both 
devoted  themselves  to  singing  rather  than  play- 
ing. The  former  was  so  fond  of  music  that  he 
could  never  help  humming  along  with  the 
melodies  in  the  theatre,  and  he  seemed  ready 
to  let  music  take  precedence  of  all  else.  It  is 
said  that  during  the  height  of  his  tyrannical 
power  he  sent  one  night  for  three  men,  of  con- 
sular rank,  to  attend  him  at  once  in  his  palace. 
In  fear  and  trembling  they  obeyed,  expecting 
nothing  short  of  death.  But,  on  their  arrival,  the 
sound  of  flutes  greeted  them,  and  the  emperor 
himself  suddenly  appeared  before  them,  and 
sang  them  a  song  before  dismissing  them.  We 
can  imagine  that  the  applause,  if  perhaps  not 
sincere,  was  certainly  hearty. 

In  mediaeval  times,  the  flute  no  longer  occu- 
pied the  most  important  place,  giving  way  to  the 
guitar  and  fiddle  of  the  troubadours.  Flutes  and 
pipes  continued  in  use,  however,  in  various 
forms,  both  straight  and  traverse.  The  old 
English  beak  flute,  known  as  the  recorders, 
has  been  mentioned  as  figuring  in  "  Hamlet." 
It  was  an  old  and  very  popular  form  of  straight 
flute,  with  a  large  hole   in    the  side,  above  the 


THE   FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  1 37 

finger-holes,  covered  with  thin  bladder  to  affect 
the  tone  quality.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VI 1.,  and  described  as  being  best  in 
the  middle  register,  "  but  manifold  fingering  and 
stops  bringeth  high  notes  from  its  clear  tones." 
Henry  VIII.,  another  of  the  race  of  musical 
tyrants,  left  in  his  collection  of  instruments  a 
large  set  of  recorders. 

In  more  modern  times  we  find  still  another 
royal  devotee  of  the  flute,  this  time  Frederick 
the  Great  of  Prussia.  In  1728,  while  crown 
prince,  he  heard  the  great  flutist  Quantz  at  Ber- 
lin, and  was  so  charmed  by  the  instrument  that 
he  at  once  arranged  to  have  the  performer  visit 
him  twice  a  year  and  teach  him  to  play.  His 
father  Frederick  I.,  however,  was  a  strict  martinet, 
who  cared  little  for  artistic  accomplishments,  and 
under  his  stern  rule  the  teacher  and  the  pupil 
met  only  under  difficulties.  The  old  king,  in 
fact,  once  threatened  that  if  he  found  the  prince 
taking  any  more  lessons,  he  would  break  the  lat- 
ter's  flute  over  his  princely  head  and  hang  the 
teacher.  He  would  undoubtedly  have  done  this, 
too,  for  at  another  time  he  condemned  his  son  to 
death  as  a  deserter  when  the  latter  tried  to  run 
away  from   the  disagreeable  surroundings   in   his 


138  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

father's  palace.  The  king  spared  him  only  after 
the  intercession  of  the  English  ambassador.  It 
was  with  no  little  fear,  therefore,  that  the  prince 
and  his  teacher  once  beheld  their  royal  father  and 
master  approaching  during  a  lesson  hour.  All 
that  saved  the  guilty  pair  was  a  friendly  chimney, 
up  which  Quantz  managed  to  crawl.  The  devo- 
tion of  the  musician  had  its  reward  when  the 
prince  became  king,  and  after  the  death  of  Fred- 
erick I.  Quantz  became  court  composer.  It  was 
at  this  same  court  that  Carl  Philip  Emanuel  Bach, 
the  most  gifted  of  the  sons  of  the  great  John 
Sebastian  Bach,  remained  in  comparative  obscu- 
rity as  accompanist  for  the  king's  flute-playing. 
The  historian  Burney  has  left  a  description  of 
one  of  the  royal  musicales,  and  in  it  he  gives  high 
praise  to  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  kingly  per- 
former. 

The  instrument  most  commonly  used  in  Ger- 
many at  this  period  was  the  side-flute,  which 
indeed  was  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Ger- 
man flute.  The  old  flute-a-bec  was  still  played, 
but  it  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  and  in  the  time  of 
Bach  and  Handel  it  no  longer  formed  a  part  of 
the  orchestral  forces.  The  German,  or  traverse 
flute,  which  remained  in  use,  is  still  employed  to- 


THE   FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  1 39 

day,  though  it  has  gradually  given  way  before  the 
improved  flute  of  Boehm.    The  older  form  of  the 
concert   flute  was  a  long  wooden   tube,  tapering 
slightly  in    bore,  with  a  large  hole  near  one  end 
serving  as  the   mouthpiece,  and  smaller  holes  at 
the  other  end  to  vary  the  tones.     The  acoustical 
laws  of  vibration,  so  thoroughly  defined  in  the 
case    of  the    stringed    instruments,    are    not    so 
clearly    known    for    the   wood-wind    group ;  but 
many  points  remain  the  same  in  both.     Thus  the 
lowest  open  tone  of  the  flute,  D  above  middle  C, 
can  be  made  to  subdivide  into  harmonics   by  in- 
creasing the   force  of   blowing.     A   still    further 
increase  in  the  air  pressure  brings  out  the  higher 
harmonics.     There  are  six  holes  for  the  fingers,  all 
covered  when  D  is   sounded,  and  giving  the  dia- 
tonic scale  of  D  major  when  released  in  succession. 
An  increase  in  the  force  of  the  breath  makes  the 
first   harmonic  subdivision,  raising   the   pitch  an 
octave,  and  the  finger-holes  then  produce  the  scale 
of  this  second  octave.    By  similar  procedure,  part 
of  a  third  octave  may  be  obtained.     The  keys, 
when  pressed,  open  other  holes  and  give  sharps 
and  flats,  and  two  extra  kevs  give  D-flat  and  C 
below  the  lowest  D,  so  the  compass  of  the  instru- 
ment  starts  at  middle  C  and  extends  upward  for 


140 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


nearly  three  octaves.  The  highest  B  and  C, 
however,  are  rather  too  harsh  in  quality  to  be 
used  often,  besides  being  difficult  to  produce. 

When  the  holes  of  the  flute  are  placed  at  their 
proper  position,  it  is  often  hard,  if  not  impossible, 


1.  OLD   KEYKD    FLUTE  3.    BOEHM    FLUTE,    SILVER 

2.  BOEHM    FLUTE,   WOOD  4,  5.   OLD    STRAIGHT   FLUTES 

6.    PICCOLO 

for  the  player  to  stretch  his  fingers  to  reach 
them.  It  was  to  obviate  this  difficulty  that 
Theobald  Boehm,  in  1832,  brought  out  the 
form  of  flute  that  has  now  come  into  general 
usage.  This  form,  to  begin  with,  had  a  cylin- 
drical instead  of  tapering  bore,  thus  giving  fewer 


THE   FLUTE   AND  PICCOLO  I4I 

overtones  with  the  fundamental  note,  and  hence 
a  mellower  quality  of  tone.  But  the  most  valua- 
ble point  was  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  rings 
and  levers,  in  combination  with  the  keys,  by 
means  of  which  the  fingering  was  brought  into  a 
much  smaller  space  than  was  necessary  before. 
The  new  system  also  obviated  all  difficulty  in 
playing  chromatic  passages,  and  composers  could 
write  freely  for  the  instrument,  while  the  older 
flute,  giving  the  scale  of  D,  was  of  course  easiest 
to  play  in  that  key,  and  became  more  difficult  in 
keys  distantly  related  to  D.'  On  the  older  flute, 
owing  to  the  fingering,  trills  were  impossible 
upon  many  notes,  while  upon  the  Boehm  flute 
the  number  of  possible  trills  is  far   more  exten- 

'  When  Boehm  had  first  perfected  his  flute,  he  went  in  person  to 
London  and  Paris  in  order  to  introduce  it.  At  the  latter  place  he 
visited  Rossini,  then  one  of  the  most  famous  of  living  composers. 
While  in  the  anteroom,  waiting  for  Rossini  to  finish  shaving,  Boehm 
commenced  playing  all  sorts  of  scales,  arpeggios  and  roulades  in 
every  conceivable  key,  hoping  thereby  to  create  a  favourable  impres- 
sion. At  last  he  reached  the  key  of  D-flat,  in  which  it  would  have 
been  wholly  impossible  to  play  so  brilliantly  upon  the  old  flute. 
Rossini  could  repress  his  interest  no  longer,  but  rushed  into  the 
room,  heedless  of  the  lather  on  his  face,  and  cried: 

"  You  can't  play  that !  " 

"But  I  am  playing  it,"  expostulated  the  inventor. 

"I  don't  care  if  you  are,"  replied  the  excited  composer,  "it  is 
utterly  impossible." 

Rossini  was  soon  convinced  of  his  error,  and  became  an  ardent 
supporter  of  the  new  system. 


142  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

sive.  There  are  still  a  few,  however,  which  are 
troublesome  to  the  player. 

The  present  theory  of  tone-production  on  the 
flute  (advocated  by  Cavaille-Coll,  Schneebeli, 
and  Hermann  Smith,  and  explained  in  Zahm's 
"  Sound  and  Music  ")  treats  of  the  vibrations  as 
formed  by  the  sheet  or  blade  of  air  entering  the 
mouthpiece.  This  sheet  is  said  to  have  a  definite 
shape,  and  to  vibrate  exactly  as  a  material  reed. 
It  will  therefore  produce  a  fixed  tone,  while  ac- 
cording to  the  older  idea  the  air  produced  a  mul- 
titude of  mixed  sounds,  out  of  which  the  tube 
selected  and  reinforced  those  that  fitted  its  length. 
In  reed  instruments,  unless  the  reed  is  very  large 
and  the  tube  very  small,  the  tube  forces  the  reed 
to  take  a  certain  rate  of  vibrations.  The  vibra- 
tion of  the  column  of  air  thus  differs  from  that 
of  strings,  for  in  the  latter  case  it  was  the  strings 
that  gave  their  tone  to  the  sounding-box,  while 
in  tubes  it  is  the  resonance-chamber  that  enforces 
its  vibration-rate  upon  the  reed. 

It  is  a  fact  that  in  all  open  tubes,  when  the 
fundamental  tone  is  sounded,  the  column  of  air 
forms  a  node,  or  point  where  the  air  is  not  in 
motion,  at  the  middle  of  the  tube.  The  ends 
of  the  column,  on  the  contrary,  are  in   motion, 


THE  FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  1 43 

and  correspond  to  the  centre  of  the  so-called 
ventral  segment,  or  point  of  greatest  amplitude 
of  vibration.  It  is  also  true  that  at  these  points, 
where  the  air  vibrates  freely,  its  pressure  remains 
unchanged,  while  at  the  node,  where  the  air  is 
held  motionless  in  spite  of  the  repeated  vibra- 
tion-shocks, the  pressure  varies.  Any  opening, 
therefore,  such  as  the  small  holes  in  the  side  of 
the  flute,  tends  to  release  the  varying  pressure  by 
allowing  communication  with  the  outer  air,  thus 
serving  to  aid  freedom  of  vibration  and  destroy 
nodes.  As  the  performer  opens  the  successive 
holes,  starting  from  the  outer  end  of  the  flute, 
he  practically  shortens  the  vibrating  air-column, 
thus  giving  a  higher  pitch  in  his  scale.' 

Staccato  notes  on  the  flute  are  made  by  inter- 
rupting the  breath  with  the  tongue,  as  if  prepar- 
ing to  pronounce  the  letter  /.  More  varied 
efi^ects  can  be  obtained,  however,  by  alternating 
other  and  less  explosive  consonants  with  the  /, 
such  as  ^,  for  instance.  Thus  a  player  may 
produce  alternate  sharp  and  dull  interruptions, 
corresponding  to  the  general  character  of  the 
words  "  tucker  "  or  "  ticker."  This  procedure 
is  called  double-tonguing.       By  introducing  still 

'  For  an  explanation  of  the  acoustics  of  tubes,  see  appendix. 


144  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

another  consonant,  the  performer  may  produce 
groups  of  three  notes,  called  triple-tonguing. 
Skilful  players  often  employ  this  effect  con- 
siderably. 

The  tone-colour  of  the  flute  varies  according  to 
its  pitch.  It  gives  dull,  hollow  tones  in  its  lowest 
octave,  sweet  and  full  notes  in  its  middle  register, 
and  shrill,  piercing  efi^ects  in  the  highest  part  of 
its  compass.  In  general,  the  flute  tones  express 
a  melancholy  sweetness  that  cannot  be  duplicated 
upon  any  other  of  our  orchestral  instruments. 
Gluck,  the  pioneer  in  employing  efl'ects  of  tone- 
colour  to  depict  emotion  in  opera,  has  used  their 
subdued  expression  with  exquisite  effect  in  de- 
picting the  passionless  joy  of  the  shades  in  the 
Elysian  Fields  scene  of  "  Orfeo." 

The  flute  is  in  constant  service  in  the  orchestra, 
and  one  of  its  usual  functions  is  to  double  the 
first  violins  in  playing  the  melody.  It  also 
serves  as  the  soprano  instrument  of  the  wood- 
wind group,  the  other  parts  of  the  quartet  being 
taken  by  the  oboe,  the  English  horn,  and  the 
bassoon.  But  the  flute  possesses  far  more  agility 
than  the  other  wind-instruments,  and  this  fact 
makes    it    peculiarly    fitted    for    brilliant    solos. 

Excellent  examples  of  such  passages  are  the 


THE  FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  1 45 

well-known  phrases  for  flute  in  Rossini's  over- 
ture to  "  William  Tell."  A  striking  use  of  flute 
obbligato  with  voice  is  found  in  Handel's  aria 
(from  "  II  Penseroso  ")  "  Sweet  bird,  thatshun'st 
the  noise  of  folly,"  where  both  voice  and  instru- 
ment give  alternate  imitations  of  a  feathered 
songster  who  indulges  in  all  sorts  of  trills,  runs, 
skips,  and  other  fiorituri.  Beethoven,  too,  has 
employed  the  flute  to  represent  orchestral  orni- 
thology, and  in  the  slow  movement  of  his  Pas- 
toral Symphony  we  find  it  used  to  represent  the 
call  of  the  nightingale. 

Mozart,  strange  to  say,  was  not  fond  of  the 
flute.  His  early  dislike  for  the  trumpet  arose 
from  the  fact  that  its  strident  tone  grated  too 
harshly  upon  his  delicate  ear,  but  there  is  no 
such  simple  explanation  of  his  aversion  to  the 
softer  instrument.  Although  we  find  him  using 
flutes,  he  does  not  employ  them  copiously,  even  in 
the  "  Magic  Flute."  The  concerto  that  he  wrote 
for  harp  and  flute,  already  mentioned,  does  not 
indicate  any  change  in  his  opinions,  but  is  an 
mstance  of  his  laying  aside  personal  preferences 
for  the  sake  of  cash.  Mozart  was  not  the  first 
to  have  this  prejudice,  for  the  great  Scarlatti 
showed     it    also.     When     Quantz,    the    flutist. 


146  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

begged  for  a  solo  passage  in  a  certain  composi- 
tion, he  was  met  with  a  firm  refusal.  The  com- 
poser afterward  said  privately  to  Hasse,  "  You 
know  I  detest  wind-instruments,  for  they  are 
never  in  tune." 

Such  likes  and  dislikes  of  certain  instruments 
are  not  uncommon  among  the  great  composers. 
Chopin,  for  example,  was  decidedly  averse  to  the 
piano  in  his  early  youth,  although  he  seems  to 
have  gone  to  the  other  extreme  in  maturity.  A 
favourite  instrument  of  Beethoven  was  the  bas- 
soon. Weber  showed  great  fondness  for  horns 
and  clarinets,  and  displayed  unusual  skill  in  using 
them.  The  especial  admirer  of  the  flute  was, 
undoubtedly,  Mendelssohn,  although  the  clarinet 
vied  with  it  in  his  esteem.  Mendelssohn  used 
the  flute  prominently,  at  times  going  so  far  as  to 
give  it  passages  that  would  sound  better  on  some 
other  instrument.  In  his  oratorio  "Saint  Paul," 
in  the  chorus  of  homage  to  the  old  gods  ("  Oh, 
be  gracious,  ye  immortals  "),  his  use  of  the  flute, 
which  was  the  religious  instrument  of  ancient 
Rome,  adds  a  decided  touch  of  realism.  In  the 
Reformation  Symphony,  where  he  wished  to 
form  a  gradual  climax  out  of  the  chorale  "  Ein 
feste  Burg  ist  unser  Gott,"  he  caused  the  melody 


THE  FLUTE   AND  PICCOLO  1 47 

to  be  given  out  softly  at  first,  by  the  flutes  alone. 
Cherubini,  on  the  other  hand,  disliked  the  flute 
exceedingly,  and  once  made  the  remark,  "  The 
only  thing  worse  than  one  flute  is  two." 

Two  flutes  were  sufficient  for  the  classical 
orchestra,  but  at  times  even  the  early  composers 
used  more,  and  we  find  a  flute  trio  in  Haydn's 
"  Creation."  While  the  third  flute  was  formerly 
considered  an  extra  instrument,  both  Wagner 
and  Verdi  have  made  it  an  integral  part  of  the 
modern  orchestra.  Berlioz,  with  his  usual  exag- 
geration, has  made  demands  for  four  flutes,  but 
his  figures  are  not  always  to  be  taken  seriously. 
In  Verdi's  Requiem  is  a  beautiful  passage  for 
three  flutes,  combined  with  a  soprano  and  alto 
voice.  There  is,  of  course,  a  large  repertoire  of 
solo  music  for  the  flute,  and  any  list  of  flute 
compositions,  however  partial,  would  be  incom- 
plete without  the  name  of  Kuhlau.  This  com- 
poser lived  in  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  and  first 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  wrote  so  much 
and  so  well  for  the  instrument  that  he  has  some- 
times been  called  the  "  Beethoven  of  the  flute." 
One  of  the  warmest  admirers  of  flute  music 
was  the  American  poet,  Sidney '  Lanier.  He 
wrote  enthusiastic  eulogies  of  the  instrument,  and 


148  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

predicted  that  the  time  would  come  when  the 
orchestra  would  contain  as  many  flutes  as  it  does 
violins.  But  the  average  musician  is  hardly  dis- 
posed to  agree  with  this  prophecy. 

There  are  several  transposing  flutes,  rarely 
used,  differing  from  the  ordinary  instrument 
oiily  in  size  and  pitch.  In  fact,  the  ordinary 
instrument  could  be  treated  as  a  transposing 
instrument,  as  its  natural  scale  is  that  of  D,  not 
C.  But  it  is  written  as  it  sounds.  The  first  of 
the  series  above  this  gives  the  scale  of  E-flat, 
with  the  lowest  tone  sounding  D-flat  and  giving 
the  name  to  the  instrument.  Thus  it  sounds  a 
semitone  above  the  ordinary  flute,  and  its  music 
is  written,  therefore,  a  semitone  lower  than  de- 
sired. This  preserves  a  uniform  svstem  of  fin- 
gering. In  the  same  manner  the  music  for  the 
E-flat  flute  (which  gives  the  scale  of  F)  is  written 
a  minor  third  lower  than  it  actually  sounds. 
One  note  on  the  staff,  therefore,  would  have  the 
same  fingering  on  any  of  the  three  flutes,  but 
would  sound  higher  on  the  flute  giving  the 
higher  scale.  The  E-flat  flute  is  sometimes 
called  the  tierce  flute,  and  has  been  effectively 
used  bv  Gade  in  his  "Crusaders."  Its  tone 
quality  is  more  crystalline  than  that  of  the  ordi- 


THE  FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  1 49 

nary  flute.  Besides  ease  in  fingering,  there  is  still 
another  advantage  in  the  employment  of  trans- 
posing flutes  —  they  allow  the  frequent  use  of 
the  natural  tones  of  the  instrument,  which  are 
always  preferable  to  those  obtained  by  the  use  of 
many  keys.  The  subject  of  transposition  will  be 
spoken  of  again  in  connection  with  the  clarinets, 
where  it  is  much  more  frequent  than  with  the 
flutes. 

There  are,  at  present,  no  flutes  in  use  that 
have  lower  compass  than  the  C  flute.  The  ob- 
solete flauto  d' amove  gave  a  scale  a  minor  third 
lower  than  that  of  the  ordinary  flute,  beginning, 
therefore,  with  A  and  sounding  in  the  key  of  B. 
In  recent  years  Massenet  has  suggested  a  bass 
flute,  the  projected  key  of  the  instrument  being 
A  and  its  lowest  tone  G.  It  is  a  pity  that  there 
are  no  deep  instruments  of  this  family,  for  their 
soft,  smooth  quality  of  tone  would  certainly  be 
of  excellent  effect. 

The  piccolo  is  sometimes  classed  as  a  separate 
instrument,  but  in  reality  it  is  nothing  more  than 
a  flute  that  transposes  its  music  and  sounds  an 
octave  higher  than  written.  Thus  the  piccolo 
part  must  be  written  an  octave  lower  than  the 
desired  sound.      Its  very  name,  formerly  flauto 


150  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

piccolo^  signifies  merely  a  small  flute,  and  in  many 
orchestras  there  is  no  separate  player  for  the 
instrument,  which  is  then  taken  by  the  second 
flutist. 

The  lowest  C  and  C-sharp  are  lacking  on  the 
piccolo.  Its  compass  runs,  therefore,  from  D  (a 
ninth  above  middle  C)  up  to  the  last  B  on  the 
piano,  —  nearly  three  octaves.  The  C  above 
this  is  so  harsh  that  it  is  absolutely  insufferable, 
and  it  should  never  be  written. 

The  piccolo  is  the  shrillest  of  all  orchestral 
instruments.  Its  tone-colour  is  brilliant  in  the 
extreme,  and  it  is  often  used  to  picture  scenes  of 
wild,  frenzied  merriment.  It  may  well  be  called 
the  imp  of  the  orchestra ;  for  just  as  the  harp  is 
held  typical  of  the  celestial  kingdom,  so  the  pic- 
colo is  always  taken  as  the  type  of  the  infernal 
regions.  Like  the  flute,  the  piccolo  has  three 
distinct  registers.  Its  lower  octave  is  too  weak 
and  hollow  for  orchestral  use,  its  second  octave  is 
bright  and  joyous,  while  its  upper  notes  have  the 
piercing  shrillness  that  gives  the  instrument  its 
Satanic  quality.  The  piccolo  is  most  efi^ective  in 
quick,  snappy  runs  or  chromatic  passages  in  its 
higher  register. 

There  are  many  examples  of  the  use  of  the 


THE   FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  151 

piccolo  in  its  characteristic  capacity.  Meyerbeer, 
in  the  Infernal  Waltz  in  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  has 
introduced  it  with  excellent  effect.  He  uses  it 
also  in  Marcel's  great  battle-song  ("  Piff-Paff") 
in  "  Les  Huguenots  "  to  add  martial  brilliancy  to 
the  occasion.  Beethoven  employs  it  in  a  similar 
manner  in  the  finale  of  his  "  Egmont "  overture, 
where  the  crisp  four-noted  runs  add  incompara- 
ble effect  to  the  final  cadence. 

Mere  noise,  however,  is  not  the  only  function 
of  tho  piccolo.  The  older  composers  knew  how 
to  employ  it  in  softer  effects,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  piccolo  obbligatos  in  the  arias  "  Hush, 
ye  pretty  warbling  choir"  (Handel,  "  Acis  and 
Galatea"),  "  Auguelletti  che  cantate  "  (Handel, 
"  Rinaldo  "),  or  "  With  joy  the  impatient  hus- 
bandman "  (Haydn,  "  The  Seasons  ").  Gluck, 
in  his  "  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,"  portrays  graph- 
ically the  ravings  of  the  barbarous  Scythians  by 
the  combination  of  piccolo,  violin,  tambourine 
and  cymbals.  Spontini,  in  the  bacchanalian  pas- 
sage in."  Les  Danaides,"  gains  a  similar  effect  with 
piccolo,  cymbals  and  kettle-drum.  Beethoven, 
in  his  Pastoral  Symphony,  imitates  the  increasing 
wind  of  the  storm  by  lon^,  risino;  notes  on  the 
piccolo.     Auber  has  used  it  skilfully  to  continue 


152  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

the  register  of  the  flute,  and  create  the  effect  of 
an  instrument  with  a  compass  of  four  octaves. 
Verdi  has  used  it  freely  in  connection  with  lago's 
drinking  song  in  "  Otello." 

Usually  one  piccolo  is  sufficient  for  orchestral 
demands:  But  in  Caspar's  drinking  song  in  the 
first  act  of  "  Der  Freischiitz"  two  piccolos,  play- 
ing in  thirds,  produce  an  inimitable  diabolic 
sneer.  Spontini,  in  "  Fernando  Cortez,"  has 
employed  two  piccolos,  and  incidentally  almost 
everything  else  that  would  make  a  noise,  to  ac- 
company the  march  of  the  Mexicans.  Berlioz, 
who  seems  especially  devoted  to  the  music  of 
the  infernal  regions,  has  again  exceeded  all  pre- 
vious records,  and  in  the  third  part  of  his 
"  Faust "  demands  three  piccolos. 

As  with  the  larger  flute,  there  are  two  trans- 
posing piccolos,  —  one  a  semitone  higher,  and 
the  other  a  minor  third  above  the  usual  key. 
Schumann  and  Spohr  have  both  employed  the 
former,  but  with  this  exception  these  two  instru- 
ments are  found  only  in  military  bands. 

The  flageolet  is  a  survival  of  the  old  straight 
or  beak  flute  type.  It  forms  no  part  of  the  reg- 
ular orchestra,  but  Mozart,  in  his  "  Entfiihrung 
aus  dem  Serail,"  wrote  a  part  for  the  flageolet  in 


HECTOR    liEKLIOZ 


THE  FLUTE   AND   PICCOLO  I  53 

G,  sounding  a  twelfth  higher  than  written.  In 
later  versions  the  part  is  rearranged  for  the  ordi- 
nary piccolo.  The  flageolet,  in  spite  of  its  small 
and  innocent  appearance,  is  capable  of  producing 
the  most  penetrating  effects.' 

*  There  is  an  anecdote  told  of  a  non-musical  minister,  who  was 
speaking  of  the  necessity  for  building  up  the  character  thoroughly 
in  every  rtspect,  even  in  the  minutest  matters.  To  illustrate  the 
effect  produced  by  the  lack  of  any  detail,  however  trifling,  he  men- 
tioned as  a  parallel  a  conductor  who  was  drilling  his  orchestra. 
"  During  the  rehearsal,"  continued  the  curate,  "  the  director  rapped 
on  his  desk,  commanding  silence,  and  said,  '  Flageolet,  you  were 
silent  I '  In  the  midst  of  all  the  mingled  sounds  of  the  orchestra, 
he  had  noticed  the  absence  of  one  tiny  flageolet."  Waiving  the 
point  that  the  flageolet  does  not  appear  in  the  orchestra,  we  may  be 
sure  that  if  the  director  had  been  unable  to  tell  the  difference  be- 
tween its  presence  or  absence,  he  would  certainly  have  been  ready 
to  enter  an  asylum  for  the  deaf. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE    OBOE,    ENGLISH     HORN,    AND    BASSOONS 

Research  and  discovery  have  shown  that 
instruments  with  reed  mouthpieces  are  of  the 
highest  antiquity,  and  have  been  used  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  The  oboe  type  can  be  traced  in 
the  sculptures  and  paintings  of  ancient  Egypt  and 
Greece,  and  specimens  are  preserved  which  were 
found  with  straws  beside  them,  probably  used  in 
making  the  reed.  Other  examples  of  great 
antiquity  have  been  found  in  Arabia,  ancient 
America,  China,  India,  and  Italy.  The  oboe  is 
mentioned  by  mediaeval  and  modern  authors 
under  many  names,  such  as  schalmei,  chalumeau, 
and  shawm.  The  old  oboe  was  the  treble  of  the 
family  of  instruments  called  bombardi,  the  pred- 
ecessors of  the  present  forms. 

While  the  flutes  are  essentially  soprano  instru- 
ments, the  reeds  extend  over  the  entire  compass 
of  the  orchestra,  except  for  the  highest  notes 
given  by  the  piccolo.     Their  tone-colour  is  much 

154 


OBOE,  ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      1 55 

more  varied  than  that  of  the  flutes,  and  they  are 
capable  ot  much  more  expression  and  dynamic 
shading.  This  arises  from  the  presence  of  the 
reeds  in  the  mouthpiece. 

The  double  reed,  typical  of  the  oboe  group, 
consists  of  two  thin  slips  of  cane,  placed  together 
so  as  to  leave  a  narrow  passage  for  the  air, 
and    fastened    by  silk    thread  to   the   thin   brass 


I.   THE   OBOE  2.   OBOE   DI   CACCIA  3.   OBOE   D'AMORE 

tube,  or  staple,  which  fits  into  the  end  of  the 
instrument.  The  size  of  the  reed  varies,  that 
of  the  oboe  being  smallest.  The  larger  members 
of  the  family  are  the  English  horn,  the  bassoon, 
and  the  contrabassoon. 

The  oboe  derives  its  name  from  the  French 
hautbois,  meaning  a  high  wooden  instrument. 
It  is  a  conical  tube,  but  differs  from  the  conical 
flutes  in   being  larger  at  its  lower  end.     It  has 


156  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

always  been  considered  that  the  conical  form 
brings  out  more  overtones  than  the  cyhndrical, 
and  although  other  things  influence  the  result, 
this  shape  certainly  does  give  more  strength  to 
the  harmonics,  and  consequently  brightens  the 
tone.  The  oboe  part  is  written  in  the  G  clef,  and 
extends  from  B  below  middle  C  to  the  F  two 
and  a  half  octaves  higher.  French  oboes  have 
an  additional  key  that  deepens  the  instrument  to 
B-flat,  but  this  note,  though  used  by  Mendels- 
sohn in  his  "  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  is 
usually  avoided. 

The  natural  scale  of  the  oboe,  like  that  of  the 
flute,  is  D  major.  The  three  notes  below  this 
are  produced  by  keys  that  close  holes  near  the 
end  of  the  tube.  The  second  octave  is  produced 
from  the  octave  harmonic,  obtained  by  stronger 
blowing;  while  the  higher  notes  are  obtained  by 
cross-fingering.  Though  all  keys  are  practicable 
on  the  oboe,  those  which  contain  many  sharps  or 
flats  are  difficult  and  ineffective,  and  florid  pas- 
sages In  them  should  be  avoided.  Most  trills 
are  easy,  but  those  on  the  lowest  and  highest 
notes,  besides  those  which  contain  two  sharps  or 
flats,  should  be  avoided. 

The  lowest  notes  of  the  oboe  have  a  rather 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND   BASSOONS      1 57 

harsh,  nasal  quality,  useful  in  producing  certain 
effects,  but  difficult  to  soften.  l"he  middle  regis- 
ter is  the  best,  giving  a  tone  that  is  reedy  and 
penetrating,  if  not  very  powerful.  The  upper 
notes  are  thin  and  somewhat  piercing.  The 
colour  of  the  oboe,  resembling  as  it  does  a  shep- 
herd's pipe,  is  excellently  fitted  to  represent  ef- 
fects of  pastoral  simplicity,  and  is  much  used 
for  this  purpose.  Besides  this  quality  of  inno- 
cence and  simplicity,  it  is  of  use  in  the  por- 
trayal of  rustic  gaiety  and  merriment.  Still 
another  colour,  arising  from  the  artless  simplicity 
of  the  tones,  is  that  of  pathos  and  grief  The 
expressive  melodic  character  of  the  oboe  is  suit- 
able in  all  these  cases.  It  is  worth  passing  men- 
tion that  the  older  oboes  possessed  broader  reeds 
than  the  present  ones,  and  gave  a  fuller  and 
more  nasal  tone,  not  unlike  that  of  a  musette. 
Even  at  present  the  older  form  remains  in  many 
German  orchestras,  and  sounds  somewhat  disa- 
greeable after  the  lighter  tone  of  most  modern 
instruments,  which  has  been  well  compared  to 
a  silver  thread   in  the  orchestral  tissue. 

One  noteworthy  point  about  the  oboe  is  that, 
unlike  most  wind-instruments,  it  demands  less 
than  the  ordinary  amount  of  breath.     The  oboe 


158 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


player,  therefore,  is  often  glad  to  rest  his  lungs, 
not  from  too  much  work,  but  from  too  little. 
There  must  be  frequent  pauses  in  the  music,  to 
enable    him  to  exhale.     In    modern  scores    this 

fact  is  usually  taken  into 
consideration,      but      the 
older      composers      were 
often    careless    about    it. 
Bach,  especially,  has  writ- 
ten   some    solo    passages 
for    the    instrument    that 
are      almost      impossible 
because    of    their    length. 
In    more    modern    times, 
Schumann  has  committed 
the    same    error ;    and    in 
IT    the   second   of  his  three 
romances   for    oboe   and 
piano   there    is   a   passage 
of    eighty-four    bars     for 
the  soloist  without  a  single  rest. 

There  is  not  much  solo  music  in  existence  for 
the  oboe.  Handel  wrote  a  set  of  six  concertos 
for  it,  which  are  still  given  occasionally.  Mozart 
wrote  one  also,  but  the  score  has  been  lost  or 
mislaid.      Kalliwoda  wrote  for  it  a  concertina,  or 


ITALIAN    PEASANT   PLAYING 
MUSETTE 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND   BASSOONS      1 59 

small  concerto,  —  a  rather  misleading  name,  as 
the  piece  has  considerable  length  and  difficulty. 
Beethoven  has  written  a  trio,  with  four  complete 
movements  in  symphonic  form,  for  the  unusual 
combination  of  two  oboes  and  an  English  horn. 
In  recent  years,  Arthur  Foote  has  produced  a  set 
of  three  pieces  for  oboe  and  piano. 

Owing  to  its  incisive  tone,  the  oboe  has  always 
been  a  favourite  with  orchestral  composers,  and  it 
is  in  symphonies,  oratorios,  and  similar  works 
that  the  instrument  shows  at  its  best.  The  scores 
of  Handel  abound  with  fine  passages  for  it,  and 
in  his  day  it  seemed  almost  to  vie  with  the 
violin  as  the  leading  instrument.  In  his  orches- 
tras. In  fact,  there  were  almost  as  many  oboes  as 
violins.  Haydn's  works  show  an  equally  copious 
use  of  the  oboe.  With  him,  however,  it  is  more 
of  a  solo  instrument,  usually  in  light  and  playful 
melodies.  Generally  It  does  antlphonal  work 
with  the  bassoon  in  the  trios  of  his  symphonies, 
but  there  is  an  expressive  adagio  for  it  in  "  The 
Seasons,"  and  also  a  long  and  difficult  solo  for  it. 
In  the  eleventh  number.  In  which  it  imitates 
almost  exactly  the  crowing  of  the  cock.  St. 
Saens,  at  a  later  date,  used  It  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose In  his  "  Danse   Macabre,"  where  the  revels 


l60  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  the  riotous  skeletons  are  brought  to  an  abrupt 
end  by  the  bird  of  dawn.  Mozart  employed  it 
freely,  and  in  the  "  Benedictus  "  of  his  twelfth 
mass  there  is  a  really  great  solo  for  it.  This  may 
not  be  Mozart's  doing,  however,  for  the  com- 
poser's authorship  of  the  entire  work  has  recently 
been  doubted.  Gluck  has  used  the  instrument 
in  his  operas  with  consummate  skill,  and  its 
effects  of  pathos  are  employed  in  many  beautiful 
phrases. 

No  composer  has  made  more  frequent  and 
varied  use  of  the  oboe  than  Beethoven.  It  has 
prominent  passages  in  his  great  Masses  in  C  and 
D.  In  the  symphonies,  it  leads  in  the  funeral 
march  of  the  "Eroica"  with  telling  effect.  He 
understood,  too,  that  its  mournfulness,  if  given 
too  great  prominence,  will  degenerate  into  a 
lachrymose  whining,  and  we  find  him  avoiding 
this  excess  by  giving  the  theme  afterward  to  the 
fuller-toned  'cellos.  In  the  scherzo  of  the  Pas- 
toral Symphony  is  a  long  solo  for  oboe,  giving 
full  rein  to  the  rustic  merriment  of  the  occasion, 
for  the  movement  represents  a  village  festival. 
In  the  scherzo  of  the  ninth  symphony  are  sev- 
eral effective  oboe  passages.  In  the  opera  of 
"  Fidelio,"   where  the    hero,  Florestan,  is   alone 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      l6l 

in  his  prison  cell,  there  is  a  famous  oboe  theme. 
Florestan  is  awaiting  death  by  starvation,  —  a 
rather  distant  prospect,  to  judge  by  the  size  of 
most  of  the  operatic  singers,  —  and  while  he 
meditates  upon  his  sad  plight,  the  oboe  pours 
forth  the  theme  of  his  lamentation,  afterward  to 
be  taken  up  by  the  voice.  In  the  third  entr'acte 
of  the  "  Egmont  "  music  there  is  a  good  example 
of  the  use  of  oboe  in  more  florid  melody. 

Spohr,  too,  understood  the  instrument,  and  in 
his  "  Jessonda "  there  is  a  prominent  legato 
passage  for  it.  Raff  gives  to  the  oboe  the  entire 
opening  theme  in  the  finale  of  his  fourth  sym- 
phony, with  a  single  flute  note  for  accompani- 
ment. Schubert,  in  his  E-flat  mass,  produces  a 
novel  effect  by  combining  its  low  notes  with  soft 
trombone  chords.  In  Mendelssohn's  4'2d 
Psalm,  in  the  air  "  Mv  soul  thirsteth  for  God," 
is  one  of  the  most  effective  oboe  solos  ever 
written.  Cherubini,  in  his  "  Elisa,"  has  written 
a  passage  for  oboe  in  the  most  ornate  style, 
demanding  nearly  the  entire  compass  of  the 
instrument.  Auber,  in  "  Masaniello,"  gives  an 
excellent  example  of  staccato  work  on  the  oboe,  — 
a  result  which  must  be  produced  by  actually 
placing   the  tongue  against  the  reed,  and  there- 


l62  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

fore  cannot  have  the  varied  effect  of  multiple 
tonguing  on  the  flute.  Berlioz,  in  his  Symphonic 
Fantastique,  introduces  an  efl^ective  dialogue  be- 
tween oboe  and  English  horn,  representing  a 
shepherd  and  shepherdess   in   the  fields. 

The  oboe  gives  the  pitch  to  the  entire  orchestra, 
all  the  other  instruments  tuning  to  it.  It  was 
the  least  tunable  instrument  in  Handel's  day, 
and  the  custom  dates  from  that  time,  although 
the  clarinet,  which  has  entered  the  orchestra  since 
then,  is  even  harder  to  tune.  Besides  this  diffi- 
culty, there  is  another  that  oboe  players  have  to 
contend  against,  —  the  expansion  of  the  instru- 
ment from  heat,  and  a  slight  alteration  of  its  pitch 
in  consequence.  This  trouble  affects  all  mem- 
bers of  the  wood-wind  group. 

The  oboe  is  not  now  a  transposing  instrument. 
In  Handel's  "  Flavio  "  there  is  a  song  in  B-flat 
minor,  with  an  oboe  part  written  in  A  minor, 
implying  the  existence  of  an  oboe  a  semitone 
higher  than  usual.  But  this  instrument  is  not 
found  elsewhere.  The  old  oboe  d'amore,  so 
common  in  the  works  of  Bach,  was  a  minor  third 
deeper  than  the  ordinary  form,  and  possessed  of 
a  richer  tone.  Its  work  is  now  usually  given  to 
the  oboe,   but   the   larger  form  has  been  recon- 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,    AND  BASSOONS      1 63 

structed  for  the  purpose  of  playing  the  scores  of 
Bach  correctly. 

Another  older  form  now  obsolete  was  the 
oboe  di  caccia.  This  existed  in  two  keys,  a 
fifth  and  a  sixth  below  the  small  oboe.  The 
oboe  di  caccia  was  not  a  real  oboe,  however,  but 
rather  a  smaller  form  of  the  bassoon.  Haydn 
used  it  at  a  much  later  date  than  Bach,  and  even 
in  the  time  of  Rossini  we  find  it  taking  the 
beautiful  Ranz  des  Vaches,  in  exact  imitation  of 
the  alpenhorn,  in  the  overture  to  "  William 
Tell." 

The  English  horn,  the  second  member  of  the 
double-reed  group,  is  simply  an  oboe  enlarged 
by  half,  and  gives  in  consequence  a  scale  a  fifth 
deeper.  In  order  to  preserve  the  same  fingering, 
its  music  is  written  a  fifth  higher  than  it  actually 
sounds.  Thus  it  is  interchangeable  with  the 
oboe,  as  far  as  the  technique  of  playing  is  con- 
cerned, and  in  those  orchestras  that  do  not  have 
a  separate  performer  for  the  English  horn,  the 
second  oboist  can  play  it  as  if  it  were  an  oboe 
without  change  of  method.  In  a  piece  in  C,  for 
example,  the  oboe  part  will  be  in  that  key.  The 
English  horn  part,  however,  will  be  written  in  G, 
but  will  sound  in  C.      If  written  in  C,  it  would 


164  ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 

sound  in  F.  The  advantage  of  this  transposi- 
tion is  not  apparent  at  first  glance,  but  where 
there  are  forms  of  instruments  in  several  keys, 
the  player  may  pick  out  the  one  that  will  give 
the  fingering  of  the  natural  scale,  or  at  least  one 
nearly  related  to  it,  thus  making  his  own  work 
easier  and  producing  better  tones. 

The  English  horn  is  not  a  member  of  the 
horn  family,  but  receives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  derived  from  an  old  English  instru- 
ment named  the  hornpipe.  The  hornpipe  con- 
sisted of  a  tube,  with  reed  mouthpiece,  having 
at  its  lower  end  a  "  bell  "  of  horn.  The  instru- 
ment was  in  use  several  centuries  ago,  at  least, 
for  Chaucer  mentions  it  in  his  "  Romaunt  of  the 
Rose  "  : 

**  Controve  he  wolde,  and  foule  fayle. 
With  hornpipes  of  Cornewaile." 

The  word  "  Controve  "  means  to  compose,  or 
improvise,  and  is  derived  from  the  same  root  as 
"  Trouvere."  That  the  hornpipe  was  none  too 
pleasing  in  tone  may  be  gathered  from  some 
preceding  lines,  where  the   poet  says : 

"  Yit  would  he  lye, 
Discordaunt  ever  fro  armonye. 
And  distoned  from  melodic." 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND   BASSOONS      1 65 


Some  scholars  imagine  that  Chaucer  may  have 
written  "  cornpipe  "  instead  of  "  hornpipe,"  de- 
riving the  name  from  the  cornstalk  often  used  in 
making  rustic  pipes,  just  as  chalumeau,  shawm, 
and  other  forms  come  from  the  Latin  cala- 
mus^ a  reed.  But  corn  may  also 
be  derived  from  cornu,  the  Latin 
for  horn,  —  a  root  seen  in  our 
word  "  cornet."  The  English 
horn  itself  is  called  the  cor  anglais 
in  French. 

The  natural  scale  of  the  English 
horn  is  that  of  G  major,  and  its 
two  extra  keys  bring  its  lowest 
tones  down  to  E  below  middle  C. 
From  there  its  compass  extends 
upward  two  and  a  half  octaves  to 
B-flat.  As  on  the  oboe,  its  first 
natural  scale  is  produced  from 
the  full  tone  of  the  instrument, 
its  second  octave  from  the  first  harmonic,  and 
its  highest  notes  by  cross-fingering,  or  opening 
the  upper  holes  while  stopping  the  lower  ones, 
to  produce  short  vibrating  segments  of  air.  Its 
music  is  written  in  the  G  clef. 

Its  quality  of  tone  is  more  full  and  less  pier- 


1.  ENGLISH    HORN 

2.  OLDER    FORM 


l66  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

cing  than  that  of  the  oboe.  It  does  not  lend 
itself  so  well  to  the  gaiety  of  pastoral  strains, 
nor  is  it  suited  for  the  expression  of  keen  grief 
and  anguish.  It  is,  however,  excellent  in  por- 
traying a  dreamy  melancholy,  and  its  full,  noble 
tones  are  imbued  with  tenderness  and  sentiment. 
Its  middle  and  lower  notes,  especially,  are  rich 
and  sonorous. 

The  older  masters  knew  little  of  the  English 
horn.  It  is  now  used  in  Bach's  Christmas  Ora- 
torio, and  in  the  Passion  Music,  but  only  to 
replace  the  old  oboe  di  caccia.  Haydn  and 
Mozart  called  for  it  a  few  times,  though  some 
authorities  say  they  never  did  so.  Gluck  used  it, 
but  without  apparent  knowledge  of  its  powers. 
Beethoven,  Schubert,  Weber,  and  Mendelssohn 
did  not  call  for  it  at  all,  the  Beethoven  trio 
already  mentioned  having  probably  demanded  an 
oboe  di  caccia  instead  of  the  English  horn.  It 
would  have  been  most  appropriate  after  the 
storm  in  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  instead  of  the 
clarinets  and  horns  which  Beethoven  employed 
in  that  scene.  Schumann,  too,  avoided  it,  al- 
though his  one  solo  passage  for  it,  in  the  "  Man- 
fred "  music,  is  remarkably  effective.  Manfred, 
the  restless  seeker  after  oblivion,  is  alone  upon 


OBOE,  ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      1 67 

the  Alpine  cliffs  in  the  morning.  His  medita- 
tions are  interrupted  by  the  sound  of  a  shep- 
herd's pipe,  and  this  is  given  on  the  English 
horn  while  Manfred  recites  the  words  : 

"  Hark  !   the  note. 
The  natural  music  of  the  mountain  reed  — 
For  here  the  patriarchal  days  are  not 
A  pastoral  fable  —  pipes  in  the  liberal  air. 
Mixed  with  the  sweet  bells  of  the  mountain  herd  ; 
My  soul  would  drink  those  echoes.  —  Oh,  that  I  were 
The  viewless  spirit  of  a  lovely  sound, 
A  living  voice,  a  breathing  harmony, 
A  bodiless  enjoyment  —  born  and  dying 
With  the  blest  tone  which  made  me  !  " 

The  effect  of  the  notes  mingling  with  his  voice 
(for  this  part  of  "  Manfred  "  is  a  true  melo- 
drama, or  spoken  monologue  with  musical  ac- 
companiment) is  one  of  extreme  beauty^ 

Cowen,  in  his  Scandinavian  Symphony,  has 
employed  the  instrument  with  the  utmost  felicity 
to  depict  the  gloomy  melancholy  that  broods 
over  the  wild  and  impressive  Norwegian  fiords. 
No  other  instrument  could  so  well  portray  the 
large  sense  of  vague  loneliness  inspired  by  their 
aspect. 

The  French  composers  seem  to  have  been  the 


1 68  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

first  to  appreciate  this  instrument.  The  Ranz 
des  Vaches  in  the  "  WiUiam  Tell  "  overture, 
written  for  oboe  di  caccia,  is  now  effectively 
given  on  the  English  horn.  Meyerbeer  used  its 
deep  tones  with  telling  effect  in  the  grand  duet 
in  the  fourth  act  of"  Les  Huguenots."  Berlioz, 
in  his  Symphonie  Fantastique,  after  picturing 
the  dialogue  between  his  shepherd  and  shep- 
herdess, by  means  of  English  horn  and  oboe, 
causes  the  former  to  continue  the  theme,  this 
time  with  no  response  but  that  of  distant  thun- 
der, given  by  the  kettle-drum,  —  an  admirable 
effect,  suggesting  a  tragedy  wrought  by  the 
storm.  Wagner,  too,  understood  its  use  as  a 
shepherd's  pipe,  and  in  "  Tannhauser  "  the  hero, 
after  emerging  from  the  cave  of  Venus,  finds  an 
excellent  English  horn  player  tending  the  sheep 
in  the  fields  by  the  Wartburg.  All  the  most 
modern  composers  make  the  instrument  a  part 
of  the  regular  orchestra,  and  use  it  frequently. 
One  excellent  example  of  its  exquisite  melan- 
choly is  found  in  the  tender  melody  that  begins 
the  slow  movement  of  Dvorak's  American  Sym- 
phony. This  is  but  one  of  many  in  modern 
scores,  for  the  tone-colour  of  the  instrument  is 
almost  indispensable  to-day. 


AXTONIN    DVORAK. 


OBOE,  ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      1 69 

The  bassoon  is  probably  an  instrument  of 
great  antiquity,  although  there  exists  evidence 
of  its  discovery  in  1540  by  Afranio,  a  canon  of 
Ferrara.  The  name  bassoon,  at  first  sight,  would 
appear  to  indicate  an  instrument  taking  the  bass 
part,  just  as  the  word  tenoroon  was  used  to  des- 
ignate an  old  tenor  oboe.  But  the  Arabians  had 
the  term  Besuin^  while  the  Egyptian  word  for 
deep-toned  pipe  is  Zummarah-bi-soan,  The  man- 
ner in  which  the  term  Busaine,  or  Buisine,  is  used 
in  mediaeval  manuscripts,  indicates  an  Oriental 
origin  for  the  instrument.  The  Italian  name  for 
it,  fagotto,  comes  from  its  fancied  resemblance  to 
a  fagot,  or  bundle  of  sticks.  It  is  probable  that 
some  instrument  of  this  type  existed  among 
the  auloi  and  tibia  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
Grecian  march  to  execution,  for  instance,  known 
as  the  "  Nome  of  Kradias,"  is  described  as  taking 
place  with  flute  accompaniment ;  but  it  may  well 
have  drawn  its  impressive  character  from  some 
deep  and  sombre  precursor  of  the  bassoon. 

The  instrument  consists  of  a  tapering  tube, 
doubled  upon  itself,  with  a  brass  crook  to  hold 
the  mouthpiece.  It  seems  to  have  grown  by 
accident  instead  of  by  scientific  research,  and  its 
scale  is    singularly   capricious.     All  attempts  to 


I/O 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


improve  It  seem  either  to  diminish  its  flexibility 
in  quick  passages  or  to  impair  the  peculiar  qual- 
ity of  its  tones.     The  natural  scale  of  the  instru- 


I.  THE  BASSOON 


2,  3,  4.  OLDER  FORMS 


OBOE,  ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      171 

ment  is  that  of  G  major,  but  it  has  several  extra 
keys  which,  by  closing  holes,  enable  it  to  get 
down  to  B-flat,  over  two  octaves  below  mid- 
dle C.  From  that  note  its  compass  extends  to 
A-flat  above  middle  C,  —  nearly  three  octaves. 
It  is  written  in  the  bass  and  tenor  clef.  As  in 
the  previous  cases,  the  octave  harmonic  forms  the 
basis  of  a  scale,  and  the  highest  notes  are  obtained 
by  cross-fingering.  The  lower  register  forms  an 
excellent  bass  to  the  wood-wind  quartet  (flutes, 
oboes,  clarinets,  and  bassoons),  the  middle  register 
is  dull  and  lifeless,  while  the  upper  tones  have  a 
penetrating  power  that  is  not  unlike  a  cry  of 
human  agony.  The  colour  of  the  bassoon  is 
grave  and  solemn,  while  its  tones  lend  them- 
selves well  to  grotesque  effects  also.  It  has  been  ' 
frequently  used  In  the  latter  capacity,  and  may  ' 
well  be  termed  the  clown  of  the  orchestra. 

Many  trills,  especially  at  the  extremes  of  the 
compass,  are  impossible  on  the  bassoon.  Rapid 
passages  may  be  successfully  employed,  however, 
and  they  sound  especially  well  in  the  favour- 
ite keys  of  the  instrument,  —  those  related  to 
G  major.  Examples  of  such  passages  may  be 
found  in  the  second  act  of"  Les  Huguenots,"  or 
in  Mozart's  concerto  for  the  instrument.     Star- 


1/2  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

cato  notes  are  often  used,  and  generally  with 
good  effect,  as  for  instance  in  the  allegro  of  Bee- 
thoven's fourth  symphony. 

Probably  first  used  as  a  bass  instrument,  as  in 
Cambert's  "  Pomone  "  (Paris,  1671),  the  bassoon 
has  gradually  risen  to  a  higher  position.  This 
is  due  partly  to  the  introduction  of  still  lower 
instruments,  and  partly  to  the  improvements  in 
its  own  high  tones,  which  are  so  expressive  that 
they  are  often  called  vox-humana  notes.  Even 
in  Haydn's  time  these  upper  notes  were  appre- 
ciated, and  in  the  minuet  of  his  Military  Sym- 
phony is  a  long  melody  for  them.  Also  in  the 
"  Creation "  are  prominent  passages  for  them. 
The  bassoon  came  into  its  rights  at  this  epoch, 
for  in  the  earlier  works  of  Handel  it  is  little 
used.  One  notable  example  of  its  employment, 
however,  is  found  in  his  "  Saul,"  where  the 
Witch  of  Endor  raises  the  ghost  of  Samuel  amid 
effective  phrases  on  the  bassoon.  Even  Bach 
sometimes  departed  from  the  early  custom  of 
using  it  merely  to  reinforce  the  bass  part.  In 
the  time  of  Mozart,  the  instrument  was  in  full 
possession  of  its  proper  privileges,  and  we  find 
him  using  it  with  inimitable  drollery,  in  his 
G-minor  symphony,  to  imitate  a  violin  figure. 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND   BASSOONS      1 73 

Beethoven  showed  unusual  fondness  for  the 
bassoon,  which  was,  in  fact,  his  favourite  instru- 
ment. He  employed  it  constantly,  in  all  his 
greatest  works,  and  understood  its  tone-colour 
thoroughly.  All  through  the  symphonies  we 
find  it  used  continually,  and  in  the  first  move- 
ment of  the  eighth  it  is  employed  with  exquisite 
humour.  But  its  most  comical  effects  are  found 
in  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  where  the  music  of 
the  village  band  is  aided  by  a  bassoon  player, 
evidently  exhilarated  by  something  besides  the 
joy  of  the  occasion.  He  has  seen  better  days, 
but  in  the  course  of  time  has  fallen  into  an  evil 
plight,  and  his  instrument,  now  old  and  battered, 
possesses  only  three  keys.  He  endeavours  to 
make  the  most  of  these  three  notes,  however, 
and  comes  in  heavily  with  them  every  time  they 
are  needed,  and  a  few  times  when  they  are  not. 

The  humour  of  great  composers  would  readily 
form  a  book  in  itself,  and  not  the  least  interest- 
ing chapter  of  it  would  be  their  use  of  the  instru- 
ments in  producing  comical  effects.  Even  the 
great  Bach,  earnest  and  devout  as  he  was,  had  his 
moments  of  play.  He  did  not  show  this  in  his 
scoring,  but  he  has  left  us  the  amusing  "  Coffee 
Cantata,"  in  which  a  wilful  daughter  refuses  to 


1/4  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

give  up  her  passion  for  coffee,  and  perhaps  also 
for  the  gossip  that  is  connected  with  the  usual 
German  "  Kaffee-Klatsch."  The  father  entreats 
and  threatens  in  vain,  and  at  last  succeeds  in 
weaning  her  from  her  beloved  beverage  only  by 
promising  to  get  her  a  husband. 

Haydn  was  certainly  possessed  of  a  humour- 
ous disposition.  Mirth  and  playfulness  speak  in 
many  of  his  themes,  even  in  his  more  ambitious 
works.  In  one  of  his  symphonies  he  has  intro- 
duced a  decided  practical  joke.  This  composi- 
tion, No.  3  of  the  Salomon  set,  in  G  major,  is 
now  generally  known  as  the  Surprise  Symphony. 
The  andante  consists  of  variations  on  a  soft 
and  simple  theme,  and  after  the  melody  has  been 
played  a  second  time,  even  more  softly,  there 
comes  a  sudden  fortissimo  crash  upon  the  kettle- 
drum supported  by  full  orchestra.  "  That  will 
be  sure  to  wake  the  people,"  said  Haydn  him- 
self, evidently  realising  that  the  charms  of  Mor- 
pheus are  more  potent  than  those  of  Cecilia. 

Another  of  his  works  is  the  so-called  Toy 
Symphony.  This  is  nothing  less  than  an  actual 
symphony,  in  small  but  regular  form,  for  a  set 
of  children's  playthings,  accompanied  by  the 
piano.     A  tiny  drum,  a  toy  trumpet,  a  cuckoo 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND   BASSOONS      1 75 

whistle,  a  nightingale,  and  several  other  juvenile 
instruments  are  blended  in  a  manner  so  success- 
ful that  many  composers  since  his  time  have 
adopted  this  style  of  musical  jesting. 

Still  another  of  his  symphonies  displayed  his 
ready  wit  in  handling  the  instruments,  although 
the  occasion  came  near  being  a  mournful  one. 
Haydn  had  for  a  long  period  been  leader  of  the 
private  band  supported  by  Prince  Esterhazy,  at 
Eisenstadt.  That  liberal  patron  of  music  gave 
the  composer  absolute  freedom,  and  supported 
him  in  ease  and  comfort.  It  may  well  be 
imagined,  then,  that  Haydn  heard  one  day  with 
sincere  regret  the  news  that  the  prince  was  going 
to  discharge  his  band  in  order  to  make  a  much- 
needed  financial  retrenchment.  Our  composer 
soon  completed  a  symphony  to  be  played  at  the 
final  appearance  of  the  organisation,  and  rehearsed 
his  men  for  the  occasion.  The  time  arrived  at 
last,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  brilliant  assemblage  the 
music  began.  At  first  the  themes  were  bright 
and  lively,  but  soon  their  cheerfulness  seemed  to 
ooze  out,  and  they  became  sad  and  plaintive.  A 
player  in  the  rear  of  the  orchestra  was  seen  to 
blow  out  his  candle,  take  up  his  instrument,  and 
leave    the    room.      Soon    another    followed    his 


176  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

example,  and  yet  another.  The  gloomy  strains 
continued,  and  still  the  musicians  kept  going  out, 
until  at  length  only  the  first  violinist  remained. 
After  a  few  final  wails  on  his  instrument,  he, 
too,  departed,  and  Haydn,  turning  toward  the 
prince,  bowed  his  head  and  laid  down  his  baton. 
"  What  does'all  this  mean  ?  "  cried  the  nobleman. 
"It  is  our  sorrowful  farewell,"  replied  Haydn; 
and  since  that  time  the  work  has  been  known  as 
the  Farewell  Symphony.  The  prince  was  so 
moved  that  he  revoked  his  previous  dismissal, 
and  kept  the  band  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Mozart,  most  genial  of  men  and  composers, 
has  imbued  his  operas  with  delicious  humour.  A 
more  purely  instrumental  bit  of  fun,  however,  is 
found  in  his  "  Musikalischer  Spass,"  or  musical 
joke.  In  this  he  parodies  the  efforts  of  a  young 
and  untrained  composer  to  write  an  ambitious 
work.  The  flimsy  character  of  the  themes,  and 
the  marvellous  attempts  at  development,  are  both 
excellent  touches,  but  the  climax  is  reached  when 
the  inexperienced  musician  attempts  to  end  with 
a  fugue.  The  subject  is  announced  pompously, 
then  the  answer  and  counter-subject  follow,  but 
after  that  his  skill  and  courage  begin  to  fail  him. 
He  flounders   about  in  orchestral  confusion  for 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      1/7 

a  time,  and  finally  beats  a  retreat  in  a  blare  of 
noise  on  the  horns,  with  which  he  tries  to  conceal 
his  discomfiture. 

Beethoven  was  not  lacking  in  humour,  in  spite 
of  his  shy  and  lonely  nature.  His  wit  often 
became  fierce  and  sharp,  and  it  was  usually 
brusque  rather  than  delicate.  He  first  used  the 
scherzo,  the  playful  movement  of  modern  sym- 
phonies ;  but  even  in  this  there  is  always  a  vigour 
and  dash  that  is  spirited  rather  than  gay.  His 
symphonies  abound  in  grotesque  effects,  and  not 
a  few  of  these  are  found  in  the  bassoon  passages. 
To  a  man  of  Beethoven's  character  this  instru- 
ment must  have  appealed  with  especial  force. 

For  true  daintiness  in  musical  humour,  Mendels- 
sohn must  be  awarded  first  honours.  Especially 
delightful  are  the  many  happy  touches  in  his 
"  Midsummer-Night's  Dream  "  music.  Mendels- 
sohn understood  the  bassoon  well,  and  made 
abundant  use  of  its  powerful  lower  register ;  but 
he  employed  it  best  in  its  more  humourous  ca- 
pacity. Instances  of  this  are  the  quaint  clowns' 
march  for  two  bassoons  in  thirds ;  the  imitation 
of  a  country  band  in  the  funeral  march,  with  the 
bassoon  making  a  comical  cadence  by  itself  on 
a  low    note  ;    and,  in    the  overture,  an  accurate 


178  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

imitation  of  the  braying  of  the  transformed 
Bottom,  upon  the  same  instrument. 

Rossini's  youthful  setting  of  "  I  Due  Brus- 
chini,"  in  which  he  made  the  players  go  through 
all  sorts  of  antics  to  gratify  a  grudge  against  his 
theatre  manager,  is  well  worthy  of  mention 
among  instrumental  jokes.  The  Parisian  com- 
posers, too,  were  not  without  their  appreciation 
of  fun,  as  is  shown  by  Gounod's  drollery  in  his 
"  Funeral  March  of  a  Marionette."  St.  Saens, 
in  his  "  Danse  Macabre,"  has  also  produced 
many  bizarre  effects.  That  symphonic  poem  is 
nothing  less  than  a  musical  representation  of  the 
Dance  of  Death.  After  midnight  has  sounded 
on  the  harp,  the  skeletons  rise  out  of  their  graves. 
Then  Death  tunes  up  his  fiddle,  using  the 
discordant  diminished  fifth  already  described. 
After  this  he  starts  in  with  the  dance,  and  in  the 
midst  of  the  revelry  comes  a  series  of  strokes  on 
the  xylophone,  imitating  the  sound  of  the  skele- 
tons' bones  as  they  are  knocked  together  in  the 
confusion.  The  end  of  this  wild  scene  at  dawn, 
when  the  cock  crows  on  the  oboe,  has  already 
been  mentioned. 

Wagner's  sense  of  humour  compels  unbounded 
admiration,  and  is  worthy  to  rank  with  that  of 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      Ijg 

Shakespeare  or  Aristophanes.  It  Is  especially  In 
evidence  In  the  "  Masterslngers,"  which  would 
have  made  a  superb  comedy  without  a  single 
note  of  music.  But  the  orchestral  score,  too, 
is  full  of  delightful  bits.  The  tapping  of  Hans 
Sachs's  hammer  as  he  mends  his  shoes  during 
Beckmesser's  attempt  at  a  serenade,  the  terrific 
efforts  of  Beckmesser  to  recollect  the  melody  of 
Walther's  Prize  Song,  the  confusion  of  themes 
during  the  burlesque  riot  scene,  the  discordant 
horn  of  the  belated  and  frightened  watchman, 
and  the  fierce  blast  of  pain  when  the  sorely 
beaten  Beckmesser  forgets  himself  and  tries  to 
sit  down,  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  ludicrous 
touches.  In  the  prelude,  too,  there  is  much  that 
has  its  significance.  The  whole  plot  of  the  opera 
hinges  on  the  failure  of  the  hidebound  Master- 
singers  to  recognise  the  real  poetic  beauty  of 
Walther's  art,  and  this  Is  foreshadowed  in  the 
orchestra.  After  some  of  the  themes  have  passed 
in  review,  the  pompous  Masters'  motive  begins 
to  reassert  itself.  It  will  brook  no  interruptions 
from  the  more  Inspired  phrases  of  Walther's 
music,  but  sounds  forth  on  the  wood-wind, 
obstinate,  fusty,  and  endowed  with  Inimitable 
self-suf^clency.      Again    the    violins    repeat    the 


l80  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

beautiful  phrases  of  the  trial  song,  but  in 
vain  ;  the  Masters'  theme  keeps  on  in  its  blind 
course,  until  there  is  almost  a  free  fight  in 
the  orchestra  between  the  strings  and  the  wood- 
wind. 

The  bassoon  once  enabled  Von  Biilow  to  get 
rid  of  an  unwelcome  audience.  It  was  at  a 
rehearsal,  and  some  insistent  ladies  had  forced  an 
entrance,  in  hopes  of  being  allowed  to  stay  for 
the  music.  Seeing  that  they  did  not  go,  Von 
Bulow,  who  was  conducting,  turned  to  his  orches- 
tra and  said,  "  Gentlemen,  we  will  take  the 
bassoon  part  first."  He  gravely  conducted 
through  thirty-two  measures  of  rests,  when  a 
couple  of  grunts  announced  two  notes  for 
the  instrument.  Then  came  sixty-four  more 
measures  of  rests.  Finally  the  leader  looked 
around,  and  found  to  his  satisfaction  that 
the  uninvited  auditors  had  taken  the  hint  and 
fled. 

The  Parisian  composers,  too,  were  not  afraid 
to  use  the  bassoon  freely.  Cherubini,  in  his 
opera  "  Medee,"  wrote  one  of  the  finest  solos 
for  it  in  existence.  Meyerbeer,  in  "  Robert  le 
Diable,"  produced  a  wonderful  passage  from  its 
middle  register.      In  the  opera,  Robert  is  sent  to 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      l8l 

pluck  a  branch  of  cypress  from  his  mother's 
grave,  which  he  does  amid  the  rising  of  the 
spirits  of  faithless  nuns.  Just  before  the  ghostly 
forms  appear,  the  dull,  hollow  tones  of  the 
second  bassoon  scale  give  an  effect  that  is 
absolutely  bloodless  in  its  weird,  sepulchral 
character.  Berlioz,  with  his  usual  inordinate 
demands,  called  for  no  less  than  seven  bassoons 
in  his  "  Damnation  de  Faust."  But  he  atoned 
for  this  excess  by  writing  excellent  music  for  the 
instrument,  as  his  use  of  it  in  the  Symphonic 
Fantastique  shows.  In  the  fourth  movement 
of  that  work,  the  low  but  constant  mutterings  of 
the  bassoon  give  a  wonderful  impressiveness  to 
the  music,  and  seem  to  picture  the  mad  footsteps 
of  the  crowd  surging  about  the  victim  as  he 
proceeds  to  his  doom. 

In  more  recent  times,  Professor  Paine  has  used 
the  instrument  with  appropriate  effect  in  his  Tem- 
pest Fantasie.  It  is  there  employed  to  depict  the 
character  of  Caliban,  and  its  deep,  clumsy  tones 
are  eminently  well  fitted  to  represent  the  awk- 
ward, savage  man-monster  of  the  magic  island. 
Ambroise  Thomas  has  employed  a  similar  pro- 
cedure in  his  stage  setting  of  this  most  delicate 
of  comedies.     This  adaptation  of  Shakespeare's 


1 82  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

"Tempest"  as  a  French  ballet  is  hardly  a 
spectacle  that  can  appeal  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
intellect ;  but  even  a  bad  play  may  contain  good 
orchestral  effects. 

There  is  a  diminutive  bassoon,  called  the 
basson  quinte,  which  sounds  a  fifth  higher  than 
the  ordinary  instrument.  It  is  of  the  transposing 
variety,  and  its  music  must  therefore  be  written 
a  fifth  lower  than  desired,  as  the  bassoon  finger- 
ing will  produce  the  higher  tone  wanted.  Its 
upper  two  octaves  are  well  replaced  by  the  more 
expressive  but  less  powerful  notes  of  the  English 
horn.  It  is  not  at  present  in  the  orchestra, 
although  it  might  be  employed  to  soften  the  tone 
of  the  deeper  instrument. 

The  contrabassoon  is  a  larger  instrument,  with 
a  conical  tube  about  sixteen  feet  long.  This 
gives  the  octave  below  the  bassoon,  just  as  the 
double-bass  gave  that  below  the  'cello.  The 
contrabassoon  is  therefore  the  deepest  instrument 
of  the  orchestra,  extending  down  to  D  below  the 
bassoons,  and  sometimes  even  reaching  B-fiat, — 
the  lowest  note  but  one  on  the  piano.  The 
available  compass  of  the  instrument  is  about  two 
octaves  upward  from  its  lowest  D ;  a  few 
higher  notes  are   possible,  but  can    be  obtained 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,    AND  BASSOONS      183 


with  better  effect  from  the  ordinary  bassoon.  It 
is  a  transposing  instrument,  sounding  an  octave 
deeper  than  written. 


I.  THE  SARRUSOPHONE      2.  FRENCH  CONTRABASSOON 
3.  GERMAN  CONTRABASSOON 

The  contrabassoon  forms  a  broad  and  noble 
bass  for  the  wind-instruments,  and  sounds  not 
unlike  some  great  organ  pipe.  Owing  to  its  size, 
rapid  passages  are  not  effective  upon  it,  although 
Beethoven  has  written  some  quick  phrases  for  it 


184  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

in  the  ninth  symphony.  It  was  first  used  by 
Handel,  in  his  anthems  for  the  coronation  of 
George  II.  in  1727.  Haydn  has  introduced  it 
into  his  "  Creation,"  where,  in  company  with  two 
bassoons,  it  represents  the  footsteps  of  the  heavy 
beasts  who  first  trod  the  earth.  Mozart  used  it 
in  a  nonet  for  wind-instruments,  and  Spohr  did 
the  same.  Beethoven  employed  it  often,  perhaps 
the  most  noteworthy  passage  being  its  obbligato, 
in  combination  with  the  two  bassoons,  in  the 
grave-digging  scene  of  "  Fidelio."  Beethoven's 
care  in  obtaining  the  proper  efi^ects,  as  well  as  his 
irascible  temper,  is  shown  by  an  incident  of  the 
"  Fidelio  "  rehearsals.  The  third  performer  was 
one  day  absent,  at  which  the  composer  became 
furious.  After  the  rehearsal,  Beethoven  could 
not  restrain  himself  from  shaking  his  fist  and 
hurling  imprecations  at  the  house  of  his  generous 
patron.  Prince  Lobkowitz,  because  the  latter  had 
dared  to  suggest  mildly  that  perhaps  two  players 
were  enough. 

In  recent  years  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
adapt  reed  mouthpieces  to  brass  tubes.  The 
resulting  instruments  have  not  entered  the 
orchestra,  but  are  effective  enough  in  their  way. 
One  of  them,  called  the  sarrusophone  (after  its 


OBOE,   ENGLISH  HORN,   AND  BASSOONS      1 85 

inventor,  M.  Sarrus ),  is  provided  with  the  usual 
keys  for  wood-wind,  and  has  a  bassoon  reed, 
which  makes  it  practically  a  member  of  the  oboe 
family. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 


THE    CLARINETS 


In  the  wind  instruments  of  the  last  chapter, 
the  tone  was  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  two 
small  pieces  of  reed  bound  together.  The  clari- 
nets differ  from  the  oboe  family  in  having  one 
large  reed  instead  of  the  two  small  ones.  This 
reed  consists  of  a  broad  strip,  narrowing  at 
the  top  to  an  extremely  fine  edge.  Formerly 
attached  by  waxed  cords,  it  is  now  bound  to  the 
mouthpiece  by  a  double  metallic  band,  provided 
with  small  screws.  The  player  presses  the  reed 
against  his  lower  lip  while  producing  the  tone. 
The  vibrations  of  the  reed  set  in  motion  the  air 
column  inside  of  the  tube,  as  in  the  double  reed 
instruments. 

The  clarinet,  deriving  its  name  from  the  old 
Italian  clarino,  or  trumpet,  was  practically  in- 
vented by  Johann  Christopher  Denner,  of 
Nuremberg,   in    1690,   although    it    is    probable 

that    the   older    instruments    known    as   shawms 

186  • 


THE    CLARINETS  I  87 

were  of  this  type.  Except  for  the  mouthpiece 
at  one  end  and  the  expanding  bell  at  the  other, 
the  clarinet  tube  is  entirely  cylindrical.  The  old 
type  has  been  improved  by  Stadler,  of  Vienna, 
and  in  recent  times  by  M.  Sax,  of  Paris.  Klose, 
in  1843,  applied  the  Boehm  system  of  keys  to 
it,  but  this  system  is  less  applicable  to  clarinets 
than  to  flutes  and  oboes,  because  a  cylindrical 
tube  produces  different  effects  from  a  conical 
one.  Other  reasons  than  the  shape  of  the  tube 
have  been  advanced,  but  the  result  remains  the 
same  ;  while  the  flute  and  oboe  act  like  open 
pipes,  the  clarinet  behaves  like  a  stopped  pipe, 
or  one  that  is  closed  at  one  end.  One  of  the 
results  of  this  fact  is  the  production  of  a  tone  an 
octave  deeper  than  that  obtained  from  an  open 
pipe  of  the  same  length.  Another  effect  is  the 
formation  of  only  half  the  harmonic  series  of 
overtones.  Thus,  on  the  flute  and  oboe,  an 
increase  of  pressure  in  blowing  causes  the  col- 
umn of  air  to  subdivide  and  produce  the  octave 
of  the  fundamental  tone.  On  the  clarinet,  how- 
ever, the  "  overblowing "  does  not  produce  the 
octave,  but  causes  a  subdivision  of  the  air-col- 
umn into  three  parts,  thus  producing  the  twelfth, 
or  fifth  above  the  octave.      In  the  higher  notes 


i88 


ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 


of  the  harmonic  series,  also,  every  other  over- 
tone is  left  out.  Thus,  the  Boehm  fingering, 
which   repeats  for  the    higher  octave,  cannot  be 

directly    applied    to     the 
clarinet. 

Like  the  flute  and  oboe, 
the  clarinet  has  six  holes, 
covered  by  three  fingers 
of  each  hand,  which  give 
the  natural  scale  of  the 
instrument  when  released 
in  succession.  This  scale 
is  that  of  G  major,  a  fifth 
deeper  than  the  tones  of 
the  flute.  The  closing  of 
certain  holes  in  the  lower 
end  of  the  tube,  by  means 
of  keys,  produces  three 
lower  semitones,  so  that 
the  compass  begins  with  E 
below  middle  C.  The 
usual  keys  for  sharps  and  flats  add  the  chromatic 
intervals,  so  that  the  first  octave  extends  from  G 
up  to  F-sharp.  By  overblowing  the  lowest  E, 
the  B  a  twelfth  above  it  is  produced.  The  four 
semitones  between  the  F-sharp  and  this  B,  then. 


THE   CLARINETS 
A,    B-FLAT,   AND   C 


THE    CLARINETS  1 89 

must  be  specially  arranged  for  on  the  clarinet. 
The  first  one,  G,  is  obtained  by  releasing  a  hole 
previously  covered  with  the  left  thumb,  while  the 
others  are  produced  by  keys  which  open  holes 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  instrument,  near  the 
mouthpiece.  The  usual  fingering  continues  up- 
ward from  the  harmonic  of  the  twelfth,  while 
still  higher  notes  are  based  upon  the  upper  over- 
tones, produced  by  cross-fingering. 

The  compass  of  the  clarinet  is  usually  divided 
into  four  registers.  The  lowest  includes  the 
fundamental  scale;  the  second,  or  medium,  con- 
sists of  the  few  extra  notes,  bringing  it  up  to  B  ; 
the  third,  or  acute,  is  the  scale  on  the  first  har- 
monic produced,  while  the  fourth,  the  highest,  is 
obtained  from  the  upper  overtones  or  partials. 
The  whole  range  is  from  E  below  middle  C, 
to  C  three  octaves  above  it.  The  clarinet  is 
notated  in  the  G  clef.  The  lower  register,  some- 
times including  the  medium,  is  called  the  chalu- 
meau,  after  an  obsolete  wind-instrument  which 
preceded  the  clarinet  and  was  used  in  Handel's 
time.  It  has  a  rich,  full,  and  rather  reedy  tone. 
The  acute  register  is  full,  round  and  clear,  while 
the  extreme  high  notes  are  too  piercing  for  fre- 
quent use. 


I  go  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

The  clarinet  is  the  most  expressiv^e  of  all 
wood-wind  instruments,  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  capable  of  the  most  perfect  gradations  in  the 
power  of  its  tones.  Any  dynamic  force,  from 
the  softest  to  the  loudest,  is  possible  upon  it,  and 
hence  its  value  in  the  orchestra. 

The  clarinet  is  the  best  example  of  the  use  of 
transposing  instruments.  Owing  to  the  com- 
plexity of  fingering  on  the  clarinet,  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  play  the  instrument  in  keys 
containing  more  than  three  sharps  or  flats  in 
the  signature.  Nearly  all  trills  are  practicable, 
but  some  are  impossible,  because  the  same  finger 
would  have  to  skip  from  one  key  to  another. 
Rapid  passages  in  the  middle  register  are 
difficult  because  of  the  fingering,  while  phrases 
that  frequently  cross  the  "  break,"  or  change 
in  pressure  of  blowing,  can  never  be  played 
swiftly. 

It  is  to  obviate  these  difficulties  that  clarinets 
are  made  in  different  keys.  The  compass  and 
fingering  already  described  belong  to  the  clarinet 
in  C,  which  sounds  its  tones  as  they  are  written. 
The  others  used  at  present  in  the  orchestra  are 
the  B-flat  clarinet,  giving  its  scale  a  tone  lower 
than  the  C  clarinet  and  sometimes  called  simply 


THE   CLARINETS  I91 

the  B  clarinet,'  and  the  A  clarinet,  giving  its 
natural  scale  a  minor  third  below  that  of  the 
usual  instrument.  Thus,  a  passage  that  included 
the  break  on  one  clarinet  might  lie  wholly  above 
or  below  it  upon  another  instrument,  and  so  be 
perfectly  practicable. 

It  is  in  rendering  easy  the  performance  of 
music  in  various  keys  that  the  different  clarinets 
find  their  chief  use.  Thus  the  C  clarinet  can 
play  in  C,  G,  D,  F,  or  B-flat,  or  the  relative 
minors,  without  using  more  than  two  sharp  or 
flat  keys  to  form  the  diatonic  scale.  In  B-flat, 
however,  the  B-flat  clarinet  gives  the  proper 
result  when  its  finger-holes  are  uncovered,  with- 
out the  need  of  pressing  any  of  the  keys.  Its 
music,  however,  is  written  in  the  key  of  C,  so 
that  for  a  piece  in  B-flat  the  performer  need  only 
take  his  B-flat  clarinet,  using  the  simple  fingering 
of  the  scale  of  C  and  allowing  the  instrument 
itself  to  do  the  work  of  lowering  the  tone.  The 
B-flat  clarinet  part  would  be  written  in  F  for  a 
piece  in  E-flat,  or  in  B-flat  for  a  work  in  A-flat, 
thus  allowing  the  performer  to  use  two  flat  finger- 
keys,  while  with  the  C  clarinet  he  would  need  four. 

'The  name  "  B  clarinet"  comes  from  the  fact  that  in  Germany 
B  flat  is  known  as  B.  while  B-natural  is  called  H. 


192  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Music  in  D-flat,  written  in  E-flat,  is  the  only  in- 
stance where  the  player  needs  more  than  two  keys. 

The  case  is  similar  in  sharp  keys.  If  the  C 
clarinet  be  used  for  music  in  A,  the  performer 
must  employ  three  sharps.  But  if  he  takes  an 
A  clarinet,  all  that  he  needs  to  do  is  to  finger  for 
an  open  scale  on  the  instrument,  which  allow^s 
him  to  play  the  key  of  A  exactly  as  he  would 
play  C  on  a  C  clarinet.  As  his  fingering  is  that 
of  the  usual  C  scale,  his  music  is  written  in  C, 
while  the  instrument  makes  it  sound  in  A.  To 
sound  music  in  E  or  B,  the  player  fingers  for  G 
or  D,  in  which  his  music  is  written,  again  allow- 
ing the  instrument  to  do  the  work  of  altering  the 
pitch.  F-sharp  is  the  only  case  where  he  needs 
three  sharp  finger-keys  (with  the  music  written 
in  A),  for  C-sharp  is  the  same  as  D-flat,  obtained 
with  three  flat  finger-keys  from  the  B-flat  clari- 
net. Thus  in  orchestral  scores  the  composer 
must  choose  the  instrument  suitable  for  the 
music,  and  if  it  transposes  downward,  he  must 
write  the  part  higher  than  it  is  to  sound,  or  vice- 
versa.  The  clarinetist  may  thus  change  his  in- 
struments without  altering  his  fingering  system. 

There  are  other  reasons  besides  ease  in  finger- 
ing which  influence  composers  in  their  selection 


THE    CLARINETS  1 93 

of  clarinets.  The  C  clarinet,  for  example,  is  not 
used  nearly  as  much  as  the  other  two,  because 
it  does  not  equal  them  in  sweetness  and  richness 
of  tone.  The  B-flat  clarinet  is  the  most  brilliant 
of  the  three,  and  as  a  result  it  is  most  frequently 
used  in  solo  work.  The  instrument  in  A,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  an  especially  full  and  tender 
quality  of  tone.  For  this  reason  it  has  been 
called  into  requisition  by  Mozart  and  Brahms, 
for  instance,  in  their  clarinet  quintets.* 

The  tone-colour  of  the  clarinet  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  register,  but  is  especially  important  in 
two  cases.  The  ordinary  notes  of  the  second 
scale  are  full  and  clear,  lending  themselv^es  well 
to  effects  of  strong,  almost  heroic,  emotion. 
These  tones  are  not  unlike  those  of  the  human 
voice.  Its  lowest,  or  chalumeau,  register  is 
sombre  and  weird  in  effect,  and  lends  itself  well 
to  gloomy  and  spectral  scenes. 

'The  difference  between  the  two  lower  instruments  is  not  as 
great  in  reality  as  it  seems  on  paper.  Meyerbeer,  while  conducting 
one  of  his  own  operas  at  Stuttgart,  found  occasion  to  reprove  the 
clarinet  player  for  using  the  B-flat  clarinet  when  that  in  A  was  de- 
manded by  the  score.  When  Meyerbeer  insisted  upon  having  the 
latter  instrument,  the  performer  laid  down  his  clarinet,  then  took  it 
up  again,  blew  through  it  as  if  to  warm  it  up  for  playing,  and  began 
his  part.  "  There,  gentlemen,"  said  Meyerbeer,  "that  is  the  colour 
I  had  in  mind." 


194  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

It  is  possible  for  a  player  to  change  his  instru- 
ment during  a  concert,  but  the  composer  must 
always  allow  him  a  few  bars'  rest  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  clarinet  is  more  sensitive  to  heat 
than  any  other  orchestral  instrument,  however, 
and  will  be  out  of  tune  unless  the  performer  has 
had  time  to  warm  the  tube  with  his  breath  be- 
fore playing.  The  clarinet  is  the  least  tunable 
of  the  instruments,  and  therefore  should  give 
the  pitch  for  the  orchestra.  It  does  this  in  some 
English  bands,  but  usually  the  old  custom  of 
tuning  to  the  oboe  still  holds  its  own. 

The  process  of  tuning  up  is  not  the  most 
agreeable  thing  in  the  world  to  listen  to,  even 
though  a  Chinese  dignitary  did  once  take  it  for 
music,  and  begin  praising  it.  As  much  of  this 
work  as  possible  should  be  done  before  the  con- 
cert, but  even  with  this  precaution  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  noise  in  the  final  adjustments.  The  oboe- 
player  blows  several  long  blasts,  giving  the  note 
A  on  his  instrument.  The  violinists  commence 
tuning  their  A-strings,  and  the  other  members 
of  the  string  band  follow  suit.  Then  they  begin 
putting  their  other  strings  in  pitch,  producing  a 
series  of  empty  fifths  and  fourths  that  would 
shock  any  orthodox  teacher  of  harmony.     The 


THE    CLARINETS  1 95 

clarinetists  begin  "  tootling,"  as  much  to  warm  up 
the  tubes  as  to  set  them  in  pitch  by  adjustments. 
The  other  wood-wind  performers  do  the  same, 
while  a  series  of  subdued  grunts  from  the  tubas 
and  other  brasses  adds  new  and  piquant  effects 
to  the  general  mixture  of  tone.' 

One  danger  in  the  use  of  the  clarinet  lies  in 
the  fact  that  if  the  tone  breaks,  a  series  of  so- 
called  "  couacs,"  or  noises,  are  produced,  which 
are  far  more  harsh  and  noticeable  than  mistakes 
upon  any  other  instrument.  The  trouble  is  not 
always  due  to  the  performer's  lack  of  skill,  how- 
ever, for  a  bad  reed  in  the  mouthpiece  is  often 
sufficient  to  bring  about  this  unmusical   result. 

The  clarinet  was  the  last  instrument  to  enter 
the  classical  orchestra.  Johann  Christian  Bach, 
son  of  the  great  Bach,  is   mentioned  as  the  first 

'The  composer  Handel  was  especially  sensitive  to  the  troubles  of 
the  tuning-up  period,  and  arranged  to  have  it  take  place  entirely 
before  the  audience  entered  the  concert-room.  On  one  occasion 
some  one  with  an  inclination  for  practical  joking  gained  access  to 
the  place  where  the  instruments  were  kept,  all  ready-tuned  for 
the  occasion,  and  proceeded  to  put  every  one  of  them  out  of  tune. 
In  due  time  Handel  and  his  men  arrived,  and  took  their  places 
amid  the  usual  applause,  but  without  discovering  the  trick.  The 
signal  for  the  opening  chord  caused  a  terrific  crash.  The  com- 
poser became  frantic  at  the  discord,  and  after  upsetting  a  drum  and 
a  double-bass,  he  rushed  from  the  stage  in  anger  to  seek  the  of- 
fender who  dared  to  take  "such  a  vicked  liberty."  But  the  culprit 
was  never  discovered. 


196 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


composer  to  use  it,  as  he  introduced  a  clarinet 
part  into  his  "  Orione  "  in  1763.  But  there  ex- 
ists an  incomplete  overture  by  Handel,  for  two 
clarinets  and  a  corno  di  caccia,  which  must  of 
necessity  antedate  Bach's  composition.  Handel 
also  experimented  with  the  older  form  known  as 

thechalumeau,and  Gluck 
used  it  in  his  early 
Italian  scores.  Haydn 
has  given  the  clarinet 
some  effective  solo  pas- 
sages in  "  The  Creation  " 
and  "  The  Seasons,"  but 
Mozart  was  the  first  to 
bring  out  its  full  possibil- 
ities, and  his  own  words 
show  his  admiration  for 
it.  "  Ah,  if  we  had 
clarinets,  too,"  writes  he  in  one  of  his  letters ; 
"  you  cannot  imagine  the  splendid  effect  of  a 
symphony  with  flutes,  oboes,  and  clarinets." 
Besides  his  quintet  for  clarinet  and  strings,  he 
wrote  a  concerto  for  the  instrument,  and  used  it 
freely  in  all  his  later  operas.  His  great  E-flat 
symphony,  written  in  1788,  is  sometimes  called 
the  clarinet   symphony,   from   the  fact   that  this 


1.  BASSOON    MOUTHPIECE 

2.  OBOE    MOUTHPIECE 

3.  CLARINET    MOUTHPIECE 


WOLFGANG    AMADEUS    MOZART 


THE    CLARINETS  1 9/ 

instrument  is  employed  prominently,  even  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  usual  oboes.  The  absence  of 
clarinets  in  many  of  Mozart's  most  famous  sym- 
phonies is  doubtless  due  to  the  smallness  of  the 
court  orchestra  which  he  had  at  his  disposal. 
The  clarinet  parts  now  found  in  Handel's"  Mes- 
siah" were  introduced  by  Mozart,  among  them 
the  wonderful  hesitating,  almost  groping,  effect 
of  the  accompaniment  in  "  The  people  that 
walked   in  darkness." 

Beethoven  wrote  scarcely  a  single  orchestral 
work  that  did  not  contain  clarinet  parts.  The 
slow  movements  of  his  second  and  fourth  sym- 
phonies are  full  of  melodious  clarinet  passages. 
In  the  Pastoral  Symphony  it  imitates  the  call  of 
the  yellowhammer ;  near  the  end  of  the  first 
movement  of  the  same  work  is  a  more  difficult 
and  brilliant  phrase,  which  includes  the  "  break  " 
of  the  instrument;  while  after  the  thunder-storm 
the  shepherd's  call  is  given  to  the  clarinet,  with 
horns.  Schubert,  too,  used  the  clarinet  freely 
and  with  evident  fondness  for  it.  A  little  later, 
Weber  displaved  even  greater  partiality  for  it, 
and  the  wonderful  chalumeau  effects  in  the 
supernatural  scenes  of  "  Der  Freischiitz  "  bear 
witness  to  his  knowledge  of  the  instrument. 


198  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Mendelssohn,  too,  was  especially  devoted  to 
the  clarinet.  The  opening  notes  of  "  Elijah,"  the 
introduction  to  the  Scotch  Symphony,  and  the 
powerful  chords  in  the  "  Ruy  Bias "  overture 
are  all  in  the  chalumeau  register,  and  he  evidently 
admired  the  fulness  and  resonance  of  these  tones, 
which  can  balance  even  the  trombones.  In  all 
his  works  the  clarinet  takes  a  prominent  part, 
and  its  passages  are  generally  easy  and  fluent. 
Excellent  examples  are  the  lovely  second  theme 
in  the  "  Hebrides  "  overture,  the  imitative  work 
for  two  clarinets  in  the  "Melusina"  overture, 
and  the  rolling,  wave-like  phrases  in  the  "  Calm 
Sea  and  Happy  Voyage."  There  are  also  pas- 
sages of  extreme  difficulty,  such  as  those  in  the 
scherzo  of  the  Scotch  Symphony  and  the  salta- 
rello  of  the  Italian.  Even  harder,  almost  impos- 
sible, in  fact,  is  a  short  chromatic  phrase  in  the 
scherzo  of  the  "  Midsummer-Night's  Dream," 
consisting  of  rapid  sixteenth  notes  lying  just  in 
the  "  break  "  of  the  instrument.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  in  the  Scotch  Symphony  Mendels- 
sohn employed  the  A  clarinet  for  its  fulness  of 
tone,  although  the  music  was  in  A-minor,  forc- 
ing him  to  write  the  part  with  three  flats,  in 
C-minor.     A    C   clarinet  part   could    have  been 


THE    CLARINETS  1 99 

written  without  any  flats,  but  the  richness  of 
tone  would  have  been  lost. 

The  French  composers  were  not  backward  in 
using  the  clarinet,  and  Boieldieu  wrote  a  graceful 
solo  for  it  in  his  opera"  Jean  de  Paris."  Meyer- 
beer employed  it  frequently,  although  his  friend- 
ship with  M.  Sax,  the  instrument  maker,  led 
him  at  times  to  write  for  the  latter's  bass  clarinet 
instead  of  the  smaller  form.  A  description  of 
clarinet  music  would  be  incomplete  without  the 
names  of  Spohr  and  Rossini  also.  Spohr  wrote 
for  it  two  concertos  of  great  difficulty,  and  often 
used  it  in  accompaniment  for  the  voice.  Rossini 
gave  it  some  exquisite  phrases  in  his  "  Stabat 
Mater,"  but  his  overtures  to  "  Semiramide," 
"  Otello,"  "  La  Gazza  Ladra,"  and  other  operas 
abound  in  passages  that  are  fiercely  difficult  as 
well  as  brilliant.  Wagner,  Tschaikowsky,  and 
more  modern  writers  have  used  the  clarinet  pro- 
fusely. Its  tone  blends  excellently  with  that  of 
all  other  instruments,  and  it  may  well  be  given 
the  leading  position  in  the  wood-wind. 

In  addition  to  the  three  clarinets  already  de- 
scribed, there  are  several  others  in  existence. 
Mozart,  in  his  opera  "  Idomeneo,"  has  twice 
called  for  clarinets   in    B-natural,  which   are   en- 


200  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

tirely  unused  now,  the  parts  being  rewritten  for 
the  A  clarinet.  The  B-natural  form  would  of 
course  transpose  down  a  semitone,  and  therefore 
would  have  its  music  written  a  semitone  higher 
than  the  desired  sound.  It  would  also  be  of  use 
in  playing  in  keys  with  many  sharps.* 

Clarinets  which  transpose  upward  exist  in  the 
keys  of  D,  E-flat,  F,  and  A-flat.  The  music 
for  these  instruments  must  oi  course  be  written 
lower    than    the    actual    sound    required.       The 

'  Orchestral  keys  are  by  no  means  a  matter  of  mere  preference, 
for  while  the  pianist  may  play  in  any  key  or  scale-fingering  that  he 
chooses,  the  orchestral  players  on  nearly  every  instrument  find  cer- 
tain keys  a  great  deal  harder  than  others.  The  best  for  orchestral 
usage  are  C,  G,  F,  or  B-flat,  or  their  relative  minors,  and  nearly 
every  great  composer  keeps  fairly  close  to  these.  The  keys  of 
Beethoven's  nine  symphonies,  for  example,  are  C,  D,  E-flat,  B-flat, 
C  minor,  F,  A,  F,  and  D  minor,  none  of  them  having  more  than 
three  sharps  or  flats.  The  aria  "  Hear  ye,  Israel,"  in  Mendelssohn's 
"  Elijah,"  starts  in  B  minor,  but  modulates  into  the  difiicult  key  of 
B  major.  This  is  not  without  its  reason,  however,  for  it  is  said  that 
Mendelssohn  chose  it  so  as  to  bring  out  the  strong  high  F-sharp  in 
the  voice  of  Jenny  Lind,  whom  he  wished  to  sing  the  piece.  Wag- 
ner held  the  theory  that  a  composer  might  modulate  freely  and  dis- 
regard key  in  the  production  of  his  harmonies.  '*  Swimming  in  a 
sea  of  tone,"  he  called  it.  But  even  while  taking  this  liberty  he 
wrote  with  consummate  care  and  skill.  Orchestral  playing  has  to- 
day reached  a  higher  standard  of  excellence  than  ever  before,  but 
it  has  its  limitations  even  now.  Liszt's  Hungarian  Rhapsodies,  for 
instance,  while  in  various  keys  for  piano,  are  often  transposed  when 
arranged  for  orchestra,  to  make  the  performance  less  difiicult. 


THE    CLARINETS  201 

clarinet  in  D  is  found  in  the  second  act  of 
Cherubini's  "  Lodoiska,"  and  Wagner  has  used 
it  in  the  final  scenes  of  "  Tannhauser "  and 
"  Die  Walkiire."  It  is  often  employed  in 
modern  German  dance  music,  such  as  that  of 
Strauss.  The  E-flat  clarinet,  too  shrill  for  or- 
chestral purposes,  forms  a  part  of  military  bands. 
Berlioz,  with  his  usual  fondness  for  bold  experi- 
ments, used  it,  with  appropriate  effect,  however, 
in  the  finale  of  his  Symphonie  Fantastique, 
where  the  young  lover  who  murdered  his  sweet- 
heart through  jealousy  is  not  allowed  to  rest  in 
peace  after  his  execution,  but  is  represented  in  the 
final  movement  as  enduring  the  pangs  of  the 
infernal  regions.  The  clarinet  here  shares  with 
the  piccolo  the  task  of  representing  deviltry  in 
music.  Clarinets  in  F  were  formerly  employed 
in  the  regimental  bands  of  Germany,  and  some 
of  Beethoven's  marches,  as  well  as  Mendelssohn's 
Overture,  Op.  24,  for  a  mihtary  band,  contain 
parts  for  these  instruments.  The  A-flat  clarinet, 
the  most  squealing  instrument  in  the  world,  ap- 
pears  only  in  the  Austrian   bands. 

Tenor  clarinets  exist,  which  transpose  a  fifth 
and  a  sixth  downward,  but  the  first  of  these  is 
practically  the   same    as  the   basset   horn.     The 


202 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


basset  horn  therefore  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  C  clarinet  that  the  English  horn  does  to  the 
oboe,  sounding  a  fifth  below.  The  basset  horn 
differs  from  the  deep  clarinet  in   F  in  having   a 

little  brass  bell  at  its  lower 
end,  and  in  possessing  four 
semitones  below  the  natural 
scale  of  the  clarinet  family. 
Its  fingering  thus  allows  its 
compass  to  begin  at  the  C 
below  middle  C,  the  actual 
sound  produced   being  the 
F  below  that.      From  that 
note  it  extends  upward  for 
three    and    a    half  octaves. 
The    notation  is  in    the  G 
and  F  clefs.     Its   music  is 
written    a    fifth    above    the 
notes   actually  wanted,   but 
a  century  ago    it  was    cus- 
tomary to  write  those  on  the  bass  staff  an  octave 
too  low,  so  that  the  instrument  would  transpose 
up  a  fourth  instead  of  down  a  fifth. 

The  tone  of  the  basset  horn  is  much  like  that 
of  the  clarinet,  but  less  brilliant  in  quality.  It 
has  a  rich,  sombre  colour,  well  suited   to   music 


THE   BASSET   HORN 


THE    CLARINETS  20$ 

of  a  religious,  or  even  funereal  character.  Few 
of  the  great  masters  have  demanded  the  instru- 
ment, in  spite  of  its  worth.  Beethoven  employed 
it  effectively  in  his  "  Prometheus "  overture, 
while  Mendelssohn  used  it  for  military  band 
music  and  wrote  two  pieces  for  clarinet  and 
basset  horn  with  piano.  Mozart  seems  to  have 
had  the  fullest  understanding  of  its  capabili- 
ties. In  his  Requiem  the  only  reed  instru- 
ments used  are  two  basset  horns  and  two 
bassoons,  which  give  an  appropriate  effect  of 
subdued  colouring.  In  the  temple  scene  of  the 
"  Magic  Flute,"  he  introduced  basset  horns  for 
the  same  purpose.  They  are  found  in  many  of 
his  works,  and  in  "  La  Clemenza  di  Tito  "  is  an 
elaborate  obbligato  part  for  the  instrument.  The 
basset  horn  is  now  practically  obsolete. 

The  bass  clarinet  is  a  still  deeper-toned  mem- 
ber of  this  family.  It  has  the  same  key  system 
as  the  ordinary  clarinet,  but  has  a  crook  for  the 
mouthpiece  and  a  large  bell  at  the  lower  end. 
Its  tones  are  an  octave  lower  than  those  of  the 
smaller  instrument.  The  usual  form  is  set  in 
the  key  of  B-flat,  an  octave  below  the  B-llat 
clarinet.  Its  music  is  written  in  C,  the  instru- 
ment   transposing    downward    a    major    ninth. 


204 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


Wagner  has  written  for  a  bass   clarinet  in  A,  a 
semitone   below  this,  while  a  form   in   C   exists, 
which      transposes      downward      only 
an    octave. 

The  part  of  the  bass  clari- 
net is  written  in  the  G  clef 
The  compass  of  the  B-flat  instrument 
extends  from  D,  nearly  two  octaves  below 
middle  C,  upward  to  the  F  an  octave 
and  a  half  above  it.  This  includes  over 
three  octaves,  but  the  highest  notes  are 
seldom  used.  The  best  register  is  the 
lowest,  which  is  rich  and  full  in  tone, 
and  corresponds  to  the  chalumeau  of  the 
higher  instruments.  The  bass  clarinet  is 
hardly  suited  for  rapid  passages,  but  in  sus- 
tained melody,  or  long  bass  notes  in  wood- 
wind combinations,  it  is  excellent  in  effect. 
According  to  the  character  of  its  music, 
and  the  wishes  of  its  performer,  it  may  give 
either  the  weird,  mysterious  quality  usual 
in  low  clarinet  tones,  or  the  deep,  solemn 
accent  of  an  organ  pipe. 

Meyerbeer  was  the  first  to  use  the 
bass  clarinet,   giving    it    an    eloquent 
BASS  CLARINET    monologue  in  the  fifth   act  of  "  Les 


THE    CLARINETS  20$ 

Huguenots,"  where  Raoul  and  Valentine  are 
finally  married  by  Marcel,  only  to  fall  victims 
to  the  soldiers  in  the  massacre  of  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew. Meyerbeer  employs  it  also  in  the 
coronation  march  of  "  Le  Prophete,"  where  it 
takes  the  melody.  Wagner  has  written  espe- 
cially well  for  it,  and  has  made  it  a  part  of  his 
orchestra  in  the  Trilogy.  He  first  introduced 
the  modern  custom  of  placing  the  notes  on  the 
bass  staff,  where  they  would  sound  as  written  for 
the  C  instrument.  Later  composers  call  for  it 
frequently.  In  recent  years  a  still  deeper  clari- 
net has  been  made  by  M.  Besson,  of  Paris,  who 
gave  it  the  name  of  pedal  clarinet.  This  instru- 
ment is  of  extremely  low  compass,  being  able  to 
produce  the  so-called  contra  D,  the  lowest  D  on 
the  pianoforte.  -;, 

Just  as  the  double  reed  mouthpiece  has  been  \ 
used  in  combination  with  a  metal  tube,  so  the 
clarinet  reed  has  been  adapted  to  a  brass  instru- 
ment. This  instrument  is  known  as  the  saxo- 
phone, from  the  name  of  its  inventor,  Adolph 
Sax.  It  was  first  brought  out  by  him  about  i  840. 
There  are  several  forms  of  the  instrument,  re- 
sembling the  clarinets  very  closely  in  shape,  and 
being  provided  with  the  usual   keys.     The  tube 


206  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

of  the  saxophone  is  conical,  however,  so  it  is 
enabled  to  produce  all  the  harmonics,  in  spite  of 
the  large  size  of  its  reed.  In  fingering,  therefore, 
it  resembles  the  oboe  rather  than  the  clarinet. 
Its  tone-colour  is  rich  enough,  though  rather 
difficult  to  explain.  M.  Gevaert  gives  an  en- 
thusiastic description  of  it  as  "  a  voice  rich 
and  penetrating,  the  rather  veiled  quality  of 
which  partakes  at  once  of  the  'cello,  the  Eng- 
lish horn,  and  the  clarinet,  with  more  fulness  of 
tone." 

There  are  in  all  twelve  varieties,  divided  into 
the  six  classes  of  sopranino,  soprano,  alto,  tenor, 
baritone,  and  bass,  each  class  containing  two 
saxophones.  The  written  compass  runs  from  B 
below  middle  C  to  E-flat  over  two  octaves  above 
it.  All  the  instruments  but  one  are  transposing, 
however,  the  two  first  raising  a  C  to  F  and 
E-flat,  the  third  sounding  as  written,  the  fourth 
lowering  C  to  B-flat,  while  the  rest  lower  the 
tone  in  succession  to  F,  E-flat,  C,  B-flat,  and  the 
same  notes  repeated  in  a  lower  octave.  Thus 
the  B-flat  bass  saxophone  transposes  down  over 
two  octaves.  All  these  instruments  play  an 
important  part  in  the   French  military  bands,  but 


THE    CLARINETS  20/ 

are  seldom  called  for  in  the  orchestra.  Bizet, 
however,  has  written  a  pleasing  melody  for  the 
alto  saxophone  in  E-flat,  in  his  ever  delightful 
"  Arlesienne  "  music. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

HORNS,    TRUMPETS,    AND    CORNETS 

The  wind-instruments  already  described  de- 
pend for  their  tones  upon  the  vibration  of  the 
air  itself,  or  of  a  single  or  double  reed.  The 
remaining  group  of  wind-instruments,  forming  the 
brass  section  of  the  orchestra,  derive  their  tones 
from  the  vibrations  of  the  players'  lips,  which  are 
pressed  more  or  less  strongly  against  a  round, 
usually  cup-like,  mouthpiece.  There  is  another 
important  difference  between  the  brasses  and  the 
wood-wind.  While  the  flute,  oboe,  and  clarinet 
use  only  a  few  notes  of  the  harmonic  series,  and 
obtain  intermediate  tones  from  either  the  funda- 
mental or  the  simpler  overtones,  the  brass  instru- 
ments possess  the  power  to  give  a  large  number 
of  these  partial  tones,  and  in  the  natural  instru- 
ments can  derive  no  other  clear  notes  from  them. 
Still  another  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  while 

in  the  wood-wind  the  air-column  is  shortened  to 

208 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  209 

alter  the  pitch,  the  tube  is  invariably  lengthened 
in  those  brass  instruments  where  such  a  change 
can  be  made. 

The  natural  horn,  sometimes  called  the  Wald- 
horn,  is  the  simplest  of  all  instruments,  consisting 
merely  of  a  tube.  Horns  have  been  known 
from  earliest  times,  and  every  savage  tribe  that  is 


NATURAL   HORN 


at  all  musical  will  possess  some  form  of  horn, 
made  of  bone,  ivory,  or  even  wood.  Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  the  chief  use  of  horns  and 
trumpets  was  for  military  purposes.  Mediaeval 
Europe  possessed  an  instrument  of  the  wooden 
type,  called  the  cornetto,  but  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  pierced  with  holes  like  other  wood-wind 
instruments,  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  an  old  oboe. 


2IO  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

It  has  also  been  described  as  resembling  the 
bugle. 

The  mediaeval  use  of  the  horn  was  to  give 
hunting  signals.  In  this  function  it  was  the 
successor  of  the  cornetto.  The  older  form,  seen 
in  pictures  of  the  time  of  Louis  XI.  and  Charles 
IX.,  was  bent  in  a  single  curve,  and  could  have 
given  but  few  tones.  In  the  time  of  Louis  XIII., 
however,  the  shape  was  more  complex,  and  we 
find  him  able  to  invent  a  special  hunting-call 
of  several  notes  to  signify  the  fox.  Gradually  the 
hunting-horn  came  to  consist  of  three  large 
circles,  so  that  it  could  be  hung  obliquely  around 
the  body,  resting  on  one  shoulder.  Thus  its 
shape  differed  but  slightly  from  that  of  the 
present  orchestral  horn. 

It  was  Louis  XV.,  with  his  master  of  the  hunt, 
who  first  systematised  the  horn-calls.  These 
were  divided  into  three  general  classes  :  Simple 
calls,  to  cheer  the  hounds,  ask  for  aid,  or  explain 
the  various  circumstances  of  the  hunt ;  fanfares, 
one  for  each  animal,  and  several  to  indicate  the 
age,  size,  and  shape  of  antlers  of  the  stag ;  and 
more  elaborate  airs,  performed  after  the  hunt  in 
token  of  success  or  pleasure.  These  airs  were 
many  in  number,  and  formed  the  link  between 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  211 

the  use  of  the  horn  as  an  accessory  to    hunting 
and  as  a  musical  instrument. 

The  introduction  of  the  horn  (often  called  the 
French  horn)  into  the  Paris  orchestra  is  said  to 
have  been  due  to  the  composer  Gossec.  When 
the  singer  Sophie  Arnould,  afterward  so  famous 
in  Gluck's  operas,  made  her  Parisian  debut,  in 
1757,  the  young  Gossec  composed  two  arias  for 
her,  in  which  he  wrote  obbligato  parts  for  two 
horns  and  tw^o  clarinets.  Scarlatti  made  the 
instrument  familiar  to  Italian  audiences  at  this 
time,  but  it  must  have  been  used  before  this 
in  Germany,  for  it  appears  frequently  in  Bach's 
scores,  and  was  used  by  Handel  as  early  as  1720, 
in   his  "  Radamisto." 

Strange  to  say,  the  horn  was  received  with 
great  opposition  at  first.  It  was  called  coarse 
and  vulgar,  a  rude  instrument  of  the  chase,  unfit 
to  mingle  with  the  more  refined  violins  and 
oboes.  Time  has  reversed  this  verdict,  and  the 
smooth,  velvety  tone  of  the  horns  is  to-day 
one  of  the  most  prized  colours  in  the  orchestra. 

The  natural  horn,  without  keys  or  valves, 
is  a  conical  brass  tube,  curved  upon  itself,  pro- 
vided with  a  tapering  mouthpiece  at  its  smaller 
end,  and  a  large  bell,  or    expanded   opening,  at 


212  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

its  Other  extremity.  The  player's  lips  vibrate 
against  the  mouthpiece,  at  a  speed  governed  by 
the  length  of  the  tube,  the  pressure  of  his  breath, 
and  the  firmness  which  he  uses  in  making  his 
"  embouchure."  Firm  lips  and  hard  blowing 
produce  the  higher  harmonics.  The  narrowness 
of  the  tube  is  another  aid  in  the  formation  of 
these  upper  notes.  The  fundamental,  or  full- 
length  tone  of  the  horn  is  never  sounded,  but 
all  of  the  harmonic  series,  even  up  to  the 
twentieth,  are  possible.  Referring  to  the  table 
of  harmonics  given  in  connection  with  the  violin, 
the  reader  will  readily  see  that  in  the  higher 
octaves  almost  a  complete  scale  is  formed.  If 
a  tube  eight  feet  in  length  is  taken,  the  lowest 
tone  according  to  theory  would  be  C  two  octaves 
below  middle  C,  while  the  lowest  actual  tone 
is  the  C  only  one  octave  below.  The  remaining 
tones  would  be  as  follows,  in  ascending  order  : 
G,  C  (middle),  E,  G,  B-flat  (too  low),'  C,  D, 
E,  F-sharp  (too  low),  G,  A  (too  low),  B-flat 
(too  low),  B,  C,  D-flat,  D,  E-flat,  and  E.  The 
series  in  actual  use  ends  with  the  last  C. 

The  lack   of  intermediate  notes   in   the  lower 
octave  makes  it  impossible  for  the  performer  to 

*  The  tones  marked  "  too  low  "  are  somewhat  flat  of  our  scale. 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  213 

wander  far  from  the  natural  key  of  his  instru- 
ment. To  aid  him  in  modulating,  there  is  a  set 
of  crooks  of  various  sizes  provided  with  each 
instrument,  and  by  inserting  one  of  these  in  its 
proper  place,  he  can  lengthen  the  tube  so  that 
the  fundamental  note  is  altered  and  a  new  har- 
monic series  given.  The  horn  possessing  the 
tones  given  above  is  the  one  known  as  the 
C-alto,  now  little  used.  Music  for  it  would  be 
written  in  the  G  clef,  and  would  sound  as  written. 
All  the  horns  now  employed  transpose  downward, 
the  notation  and  the  consequent  strength  of 
blowing  being  the  same  for  a  given  harmonic  on 
each  horn,  while  the  length  of  the  instrument 
determines  the  actual  pitch  of  the  note.  Horns 
exist  in  B-flat  alto.  A,  A-flat,  G,  F,  E,  E-flat,  D, 
C,  and  B-flat  basso.  These  transpose  downward 
by  intervals  varying  from  a  major  second  to 
a  major  ninth,  while  their  music  is  written  in 
C,  at  the  same  interval  above  the  sound  desired. 
The  intermediate  keys  may  be  obtained  by  draw- 
ing out  a  slide  in  the  tube,  thus  altering  the 
size  of  the  instrument  enough  to  lower  it  by 
a  semitone.  The  total  length  of  tube  increases 
from  nine  feet  on  the  highest  horn  to  eighteen 
on  the  lowest. 


214  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

The  compass  of  the  horn  varies  according 
to  the  length  of  its  tube.  As  longer  tubes  give 
more  overtones,  it  follows  that  the  deeper  horns 
have  the  most  extensive  compass.  Their  low 
notes,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  sound  so  well  as 
the  low  tones  of  the  shorter  horns.  Extreme 
intervals  are  not  easy  on  the  horn,  as  they  require 
an  abrupt  change  in  the  pressure  of  blowing. 
Long  passages  in  high  notes  are  fatiguing,  owing 
to  the  continual  high  pressure  of  lip  required. 
Trills  are  practicable  only  in  the  upper  scales. 
Many  composers  obtain  greater  freedom  in  writ- 
ing by  using  horns  of  several  sizes  in  one 
composition.  Meyerbeer  and  Berlioz  have 
shown  especial  fondness  for  this  procedure, 
calling  for  as  many  as  four  different  keys  at 
times. 

The  natural,  or  open,  tones  of  the  horn  are 
not  the  only  ones  it  can  give,  but  they  are  by  all 
odds  the  best.  On  the  F,  E,  and  E-flat  horns 
especially  they  have  a  full  richness  and  depth  of 
colour.  Composers  of  the  classical  period  used 
these  horns  with  telling  effect,  and  their  romantic 
beauty  lends  its  charm  to  many  famous  works  of 
that  great  epoch.  The  wonderful  horn  passage 
in  the  scherzo  of  Beethoven's  Eroica  Symphony 


CARL    MARIA    \'ON    WEBER 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,  AND    CORNETS  21 S 

seems  imbued  with  unfading  glory.  So,  too,  do 
the  horn-calls  in  the  finale  of  Schubert's  C-major 
symphony,  —  soft  at  first,  like  the  "Horns  of 
elf-land,  faintly  blowing,"  then  gradually  swell- 
ing into  the  richest  of  harmonies.  Weber,  too, 
loved  the  horn,  and  it  fitted  well  in  the  scores 
of  his  operas.  The  noble  horn  quartet  of  "  Der 
Freischiitz  "  is  almost  too  well  known  to  need 
description.  Rossini,  himself  the  son  of  a  horn 
player,  used  the  instrument  freely ;  but  his  melo- 
dies lack  the  older  and  simpler  style,  being  of  the 
brilliant  and  florid  character  that  is  best  suited  to 
the  valve-horn.  His  Stabat  Mater  contains  a 
part  for  a  horn  in  A-flat  basso.  Mendelssohn, 
last  of  the  classicists  if  Brahms  be  excepted,  in- 
troduced some  beautiful  horn  passages  into  his 
works,  a  notable  one  being  found  in  the  third 
movement  of  his  Italian  Symphony.  Modern 
composers  are  no  less  devoted  to  the  instrument. 
Wagner,  in  his  impressive  "  Ride  of  the  Val- 
kyries," demands   as  many  as  eight   horns. 

The  open  tones  on  the  natural  horn  may  be 
altered  considerably.  Bv  relaxing  the  lips  and 
inserting  his  hand  in  the  bell,  a  good  player  can 
lower  the  first  tone  of  the  horn  bv  several  notes, 
which   are   designated   as   artificial    or    factitious. 


2l6  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

The  upper  harmonics  also  may  be  lowered  by 
the  same  action  of  the  hand,  giving  notes  which 
are  then  known  as  stopped  or  muted.'  The 
performer  may  vary  their  quality  considerably 
by  altering  the  position  of  his  hand,  and  com- 
posers sometimes  indicate,  by  the  figures  ^, 
^,  and  so  on,  how  much  of  the  bell  is  to  b. 
covered.  The  stopped  tone  is  soft  and  veiled  in 
character,  but  by  the  special  blowing  needed  to 
produce  a  blaring,  "  brassy  "  quality,  it  may  be 
made  into  one  of  the  ugliest  sounds  of  the  orches- 
tra. This  colour  is  much  used  now,  especially 
by  those  composers  who  are  no  longer  able  to 
attain  beauty  by  simple  means,  but  struggle  after 
overpowering  effects. 

This  discordant  quality  can  be  produced  in  the 
open  notes,  by  detaching  the  bell  from  the  instru- 
ment. Such  a  result  is  obtained  in  the  climax  of 
the  duet,  "  Gardez-vous  de  la  jalousie,"  in  Me- 
hul's  "  Euphrosyne  et  Coradin."  Gretry,  when 
asked  what  he  thought  of  this  wild  duet,  replied 
that  it  was  enough  to  take  the  roof  off  the  thea- 
tre and  the  skulls  off  the  heads  of  the  audience  ; 
but  Gretry  went  to  the  other  extreme  in  his  own 

*  The  sixth  harmonic,  B-flat  on  the  C  horn,  is  too  flat  for  our  scale, 
but  it  may  thus  be  changed  into  a  good  A. 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  21/ 

music,  and  gave  only  melodies  that  sound  shallow 
and  tinkling  to-day.' 

Schumann  once  made  an  unintentional  demand 
for  muted  horns.  Especially  devoted  to  the 
piano,  he  was  never  thoroughly  at  ease  in  hand- 
ling the  orchestra,  and  when  he  wrote  the  open- 
ing phrase  for  his  delightful  Spring  Symphony, 
the  one  in  B-flat,  he  gave  the  passage  to  horns 
and  trumpets,  and  through  ignorance  included 
among  their  soft  notes  one  of  the  ugly  stopped 
tones.  At  the  rehearsal  the  performers  were 
ready  to  laugh  at  the  odd  effect,  but  he 
saved  himself  skilfully  by  saying  that  he  had 
meant  to  write  the  passage  a  minor  third 
higher ;  and  a  minor  third  higher  it  remains, 
even  to-day. 

Owing  to  their  repulsive  quality,  the  muted 
horn  tones  are  eminently  fitted  to  picture  evil. 
Gounod  uses  them  in  "  Faust,"  where  the  aged 
and  despairing  philosopher  is  asked  to  sign  the 

'  When  Gretry  was  asked  why  he  did  not  modulate  more  fre- 
quently in  his  works,  he  replied,  "  I  may  do  so  sometime,  but  I  must 
have  good  cause  for  it."  "  What  do  you  consider  good  cause  ? " 
queried  his  companion.  Gretry  then  responded,  "Suppose  that  in 
the  plot  of  an  opera  an  amorous  youth  should  attempt  to  make 
love  to  a  fair  maiden  against  her  father's  wishes,  —  if  the  father 
should  come  upon  them  unexpectedly,  and  administer  a  hearty  kick 
to  the  young  man,  I  should  then  modulate  very  abruptly." 


2l8 


ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 


contract  giving  his  soul  to  the  devil.  Wagner, 
too,  employs  them  often,  and  when  the  hero 
Siegfried  meets  his  fate,  in  the  second  act  of 
"  Die  Gotterdammerung,"  their  baleful  tones 
sound  forth  with  powerful  effect.  Massenet  has 
used  them  skilfully  for  a  totally  different  pu  - 
pose,  —  that   of   representing   the   cracked    old 


VALVE    HORN 


village  bell,  in  the  "  Angelus "  of  his  Scenes 
Pittoresques.  The  employment  of  the  open 
tones  by  Berlioz,  in  combination  with  the  harp, 
has  already  been  noted,  and  produces  an  excel- 
lent imitation  of  a  full-toned  bell. 

The  valve  horn  now  usually  replaces  the  older 
form,  and  gives  tones  which  are  almost  as  good 
in  quality.      The  complications  introduced  into 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  219 

the  tube,  however,  are  not  without  influence  in 
lessening  their  fulness  and  richness.  The  valve 
horn  differs  from  its  predecessor  in  being  pro- 
vided with  valves,  or  ventils,  which  enable  the 
performer  to  alter  the  length  of  tube  at  any 
instant  by  pressing  with  his  fingers.  The  first 
valve  throws  enough  extra  tubing  into  use  to 
lower  the  pitch  a  tone,  the  second  a  semitone, 
and  the  third  a  minor  third.  The  first  two 
valves  played  together  give  about  the  same 
result  as  the  third  alone,  and  while  they  are  less 
accurate  in  length  when  taken  together,  they  are 
much  used  in  actual  performance,  because  the 
third  valve  is  played  upon  by  a  weaker  finger. 
The  second  and  third  together  will  lower  the 
pitch  four  semitones,  or  a  major  third,  the  first 
and  third  valve  depress  the  note  five  semitones, 
or  a  perfect  fourth,  while  all  three  lower  it  six 
semitones.  The  largest  interval  between  any 
successive  open  tones  on  the  horn  comes  be- 
tween the  first  and  second.  As  the  valves  can 
lower  the  second  tone  to  within  a  semitone  of  the 
first,  the  horn  is  thus  put  in  possession  of  a  com- 
plete chromatic  scale.  Each  of  the  single  notes 
obtained  by  the  use  of  the  valves,  in  altering  the 
lowest  tone,  has  also  its  own  series  of  harmonics, 


220  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

SO  that  it  becomes  possible  to  produce  high  notes 
in  several  different  ways. 

Although  all  keys  are  possible  on  the  valve 
horn,  it  is  still  best  for  the  composer  to  write  for 
the  instrument  in  as  vocal  and  diatonic  a  manner 
as  possible.  The  performer  generally  sets  hjs 
horn  for  the  key  of  F,  and  uses  no  other  crook, 
except  on  unusual  occasions.  The  range  of 
stopped  tones  is  increased  also,  for  the  player  can 
now  produce  them  all  by  sounding  the  semitone 
above  them  and  inserting  his  hand  in  the  bell  as 
usual.  Modulation,  of  course,  presents  abso- 
lutely no  difficulties  on  the  valve  horn,  and  the 
continual  use  of  the  horn  in  the  most  modern 
scores  gives  evidence  of  this  fact. 

The  post-horn,  a  simple  tube  four  feet  or  more 
in  length,  has  been  used  by  Beethoven  and 
Mozart.  Its  tones  are  full  and  clear,  as  a 
straight  tube  always  produces  better  results  than 
one  with  many  curves  in  it.  The  post-horn  is 
usually  in  the  key  of  C  or  B-flat,  and  gives  only 
the  first  five  harmonics,  corresponding  to  those 
of  the  bugle. 

The  trumpet  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  instru- 
ments. China  ascribes  the  greatest  antiquity  to 
it.       Egyptian    art    proves  its    existence  in    that 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  221 

ancient  country.  The  Hebrew  prophets  were 
familiar  with  it,  and  held  it  responsible  for 
the  fall  of  the  walls  of  Jericho.  Greece  pos- 
sessed it  even  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war. 
Rome  adopted  it  at  an  early  date,  the  lituus,  or 
curved  trumpet,  coming  from  Oscan  models, 
while  the  tuba  was  borrowed  from  the  Etrus- 
cans. 

Trumpets  were  constantly  in  use  during  the 
middle  ages,  especially  in  the  period  when 
chivalry  flourished.  Owing  to  the  employment 
of  the  instrument  by  heralds  on  great  occasions, 
it  became  a  favourite  with  the  aristocracy,  and  an 
adjunct  of  royalty.  As  late  as  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  of  England,  we  find  a  royal  orchestra  con- 
sisting often  trumpets  balanced  against  only  nine 
stringed  instruments.  The  wide  popularity  of 
the  trumpet  led  to  the  formation  of  a  trumpeters' 
guild,  or  society,  which  contained  members  of  the 
highest  rank  and  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  old  musical  unions.  It  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  playing  of  the  instrument,  as  well, 
and  kept  up  the  standard  of  excellence  in  execu- 
tion. This  guild  existed  down  to  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  even  then  con- 
tained several   distinguished  members.     One  of 


222 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


GERMAN   TRUMPETER,    SIXTEENTH   CENTURY 


the  best  known  was  the  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar, 
who  had  to  apply  in  regular  form,  and  pass  an 
examination   in   trumpet   playing,  with  as   much 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS 


223 


red  tape    as    in  the    case  of  any  unknown    and 
obscure  aspirant  for  the  honour. 

The  trumpet  differs  from  the  horn  by  having 
a  tube  that  is  cyhndrical  instead  of  conical,  except 
for  the  bell  at  the  end.  In 
shape  it  resembles  a  rectangle 
rather  than  a  circle.  Its  mouth- 
piece, too,  is  a  shallow  hemi- 
spherical cup,  and  not  a 
tapering  cone.  This  difference 
in  the  shape  of  the  mouthpiece 
is  of  great  importance  in  giving 
the  trumpet  tones  their  martial 
quality.  The  tube  of  the 
trumpet  is  just  half  the  length 
of  that  of  the  horn,  and  in 
consequence  its  tones  sound  an 
octave  higher. 

The  trumpet  in  C  is  eight 
feet  long,  half  the  size  of  the 
horn  in  low  C.  Its  music  is 
written  in  the  G  clef,  and  sounds  as  written. 
From  the  tables  and  illustrations  already  given, 
the  reader  will  understand  that  the  air-column 
does  not  vibrate  as  a  whole,  in  which  case  it 
would  sound  the  C  two  octaves  below  middle  C, 


NATURAL    1  RUM PET 


224  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

but  subdivides  into  halves,  thirds,  quarters,  and 
so  forth,  giving  the  higher  notes  of  the  harmonic 
series  with  the  shorter  divisions  of  the  column. 
This  series  of  partial  tones  begins  an  octave  below 
middle  C,  and  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  unused 
eight-foot  horn  in  C-alto.  The  real  trumpet 
quality,  however,  begins  with  the  second  har- 
monic. 

As  with  the  horn,  crooks  of  different  lengths 
may  be  inserted  into  the  natural  trumpet,  to  alter 
its  pitch  and  set  it  in  a  new  key.  All  the  trum- 
pets, except  the  one  in  C,  are  transposing,  the 
music  being  always  written  as  if  for  the  C  trum- 
pet. The  keys  obtained  by  the  use  of  these 
crooks  are  F,  E,  E-flat,  and  D  transposing 
upward,  C  sounding  as  written,  and  B-flat  lower- 
ing the  pitch  a  tone.  A  few  other  trumpets  are 
to  be  found  occasionally.  Thus  Auber  has  called 
for  a  trumpet  in  G,  sounding  a  perfect  fifth  higher 
than  written,  Schumann  has  demanded  one  in  B, 
a  semitone  lower  than  written,  and  Wagner,  in 
the  "Tannhauser"  march,  employs  one  in  A, 
depressing  the  pitch  a  minor  third.  The  higher 
toned  trumpets  are  the  most  brilliant  in  quality. 
The  compass  extends  up  to  the  fifteenth  har- 
monic,   three    octaves    above    the    first,    but    in 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  225 

practice  It  seldom  goes  above  the  eleventh,  which 
for  the  C  trumpet  would  be  G,  an  octave  and  a 
half  above  middle  C. 

As  early  as  the  time  of  Monteverde  the  trum- 
pets in  the  orchestra  were  divided,  consisting  of 
one  clarino^  or  small  instrument  (whence  the  name 
"  clarion  "),  and  three  larger  ones  known  as  trombe. 
This  distinction  was  kept  up,  until  in  the  time  of 
Bach  and  Handel  we  find  the  trumpeters  divided 
into  two  separate  classes.  The  "  Clarinblaser  " 
took  the  upper  notes,  and  by  the  use  of  a 
special  mouthpiece,  aided  by  long  practice,  they 
were  able  to  perform  the  most  florid  and  brilliant 
passages.  The  rapid  melodies  so  frequently 
found  in  old  scores  were  played  by  these  virtuosi, 
while  the  bass  parts  were  taken  by  the  so-called 
"  Principalblaser,"  who  were  rarely  required  to  go 
above  the  seventh  harmonic. 

The  gradual  disappearance  of  the  specialised 
"  Clarinblaser,"  and  possibly  also  the  decline  of 
the  trumpeters'  guild,  brought  about  a  decadence 
in  the  playing  of  the  trumpet.  During  the  clas- 
sical period,  when  almost  every  instrument  was 
being  given  new  and  varied  employment  in  the 
orchestra,  the  trumpets  were  relegated  to  an 
inferior  position.       Mozart  used  them  but  little. 


226  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

and  substituted  his  beloved  clarinets  for  many  of 
the  difficult  trumpet  parts  in  Handel's  "  Mes- 
siah." This  may  have  been  partly  a  matter  of 
personal  taste,  however,  for  Mozart  disliked  the 
trumpet,  and  until  the  age  of  ten  could  not  bear 
even  to  hear  its  tone.  Beethoven  employed  the 
trumpets  very  sparingly,  and  when  he  did  call 
for  them  it  was  usually  in  passages  for  full  orches- 
tra, Weber,  too,  wrote  little  for  them,  in  spite 
of  his  admiration  for  the  softer-toned  horns. 

The  tone-colour  of  the  trumpet  is  extremely 
brilliant,  and  well  suited  to  express  martial  glory. 
It  is  so  powerful  that  a  single  one  of  its  notes 
can  be  perceived  readily  in  passages  for  full 
orchestra.  It  can  be  softened  considerably,  but 
is  best  in  clear,  ringing  tones,  which  are  altogether 
noble  in  effect.  Its  stopped  tones  are  not  often 
used,  but  the  instrument  is  provided  with  a 
mute,  or  sordino.  This  resembles  the  mute 
sometimes  applied  to  the  horn,  and  is  a  conical  or 
pear-shaped  mass  of  leather  or  papier-mache. 
Wagner  has  used  muted  trumpets  in  "  Die 
Meistersinger,"  where  their  bizarre  effect  when 
strongly  blown  gives  an  excellent  imitation  of  the 
tiny  trumpet  of  the  toy-makers,  and  precedes  the 
entrance  of  their  guild. 


RICHARD    \VA(;NER 


ffORA^S,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS  22 7 

The  open  notes  of  the  trumpet  are  heard  at 
their  best  in  fanfares.  Wagner  has  been  espe- 
cially happy  in  his  use  of  them,  for  they  are  well 
suited  to  the  mediaeval  subjects  of  many  of  his 
operas.  A  good  example  is  found  in  "  Lohen- 
grin," where  the  trumpet-calls  of  the  castle 
warders  echo  to  and  fro  as  the  morning  dawns. 
In  "  Tannhauser,"  at  the  entrance  of  the  minstrel 
knights  into  the  hall  of  song  where  they  are  to 
compete,  the  trumpets  play  an  important  part. 
All  through  "  Die  Meistersinger,"  too,  they  have 
much  to  say.  Whenever  these  trumpets  appear 
on  the  stage,  they  are  the  natural  instruments. 
An  impressive  trumpet  fanfare  is  heard  in  Verdi's 
great  Mazzoni  Requiem,  where  the  composer  has 
undertaken  to  suggest  the  last  trump  at  the  Day 
of  Judgment. 

Duets  between  voice  and  trumpet  have  long 
afforded  a  favourite  method  for  displaying  the 
instrument.  The  greatest  of  these  is  undoubt- 
edly the  attractive  bass  solo,  "  The  trumpet 
shall  sound,"  in  Handel's  "  Messiah."  The 
aria,  "  Let  the  bright  seraphim,"  is  another  in- 
stance, this  time  for  soprano.  It  is  not  always 
the  trumpet  that  wins  in  these  trials  of  strength. 
The    great   basso    Lablache,  for    example,  had  a 


228  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

voice  that  could  dominate  the  entire  orchestra. 
The  famous  tenor  FarineHi,  appearing  once  at 
Rome  in  conjunction  with  a  trumpeter,  wholly 
excelled  his  rival  in  brilliancy,  force,  and  wealth 
of  ornamentation ;  and  to  make  the  triumph 
complete,  the  singer  continued  after  his  opponent 
was  exhausted,  actually  increasing  the  power  and 
breadth  of  his  tones.  K  similar  anecdote  is  told 
of  Mrs.  Billington,  the  well-known  English 
singer,  and  on  one  occasion  conductor  and  truma- 
peter  nearly  came  to  blows  because  the  latter 
could  not  play  with  enough  strength  to  balance 
the  voice  part. 

Thomas  Harper,  the  great  English  trumpeter 
of  the  last  century,  used  an  instrument  provided 
with  a  small  slide.  This  consisted  of  a  double 
joint  in  the  tube,  so  that  it  could  be  elongated 
slightly  in  trombone  fashion.  The  slide  differed 
from  that  of  the  trombone,  however,  in  being 
drawn  toward  the  player  instead  of  away  from 
him.  The  slide  was  of  use  in  correcting  those 
harmonics  that  are  out  of  pitch  with  our  scale 
(notably  the  sixth  and  tenth),  and  also  in  in- 
creasing the  number  of  tones  possible  on  the 
instrument.  It  could  lower  any  note  by  either  a 
semitone  or  a  whole  tone,  and  while  this  did  not 


HORNS,    TRUMPETS,   AND    CORNETS 


229 


complete  the  chromatic  scale  in  all  parts  of  the 
compass,  it  added  greatly  to  the  trumpet's 
musical  worth. 

Much  more  commonly  used  than  the  slide 
trumpet  is  the  valve  trumpet. 
This  is  provided  with  valves 
exactly  similar  in  principle  to 
those  of  the  horn,  and  it  is 
thus  enabled  to  give  a  com- 
plete chromatic  scale  in  either 
open  or  stopped  tones.  As 
with  the  horn,  however,  this 
instrument  sounds  best  in 
passages  where  the  open  tones 
predominate.  On  the  valve 
trumpet  the  florid  Handelian 
passages  become  perfectly 
practicable,  and  Mozart's  re- 
scoring  of  them  with  clari- 
nets is  no  longer  necessary. 
An  instrument  of  the  valve  type  is  the  bass 
trumpet  called  for  by  Wagner  in  his  Trilogy. 
This  sounds  an  octave  lower  than  the  usual  form, 
and  is  therefore  in  unison  with  the  horns.  Its  tone 
has  not  the  nobility  of  the  higher  trumpets,  but 
resembles  the  sound  of  a  rather  poor  trombone. 


KEYED    OR   VALVE 
TRUMPET 


230 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


The  cornet,  or  cornet-a-pistons,  is  a  conical 
brass  tube  about  four  and  a  half  feet  long,  with 
a  wide  bore  in  proportion  to  its  length.  The 
cornet  plays  naturally  in  the  key  of  B-flat, 
although   it   is   provided   with   crooks    by  which 

it  can  be  set  in  A,  A-flat, 
or  G.  It  is  a  transposing 
instrument,  and  must  be 
written  above  the  required 
key,  as  it  transposes  down- 
wards. While  the  horn 
and  trumpet  are  always 
written  in  C,'  the  cornet 
may  have  sharps  or  flats 
in  its  signature  as  required, 
therein  resembling  the 
clarinets. 

The    small  size  of  the 

cornet  makes  it  sound  an 

octave    above    the    B-flat 

trumpet.      Thus    a    given   scale    on    the   cornet 

includes  fewer  harmonics,  and  consequently  needs 


CORNET 


'  Modern  composers  no  longer  cling  to  the  C-signature  in  the 
horn  part,  but  sometimes  choose  any  desired  size  of  instrument, 
usually  the  F  horn,  and  use  whatever  sharps  or  flats  are  needed  to 
make  it  transpose  into  the  required  key. 


NORA'S,    TRUMPETS,    AND    CORNETS  23 1 

fewer  alterations  in  the  strength  of  blowing,  than 
the  same  scale  on  the  trumpet.  This  accounts 
for  the  fluency  of  the  former  instrument,  which 
is  capable  of  more  varied  execution  than  any 
other  member  of  the  brasses.  Rapid  passages, 
trills,  repeated  notes,  double  tonguing,  and  all 
sorts  of  embellishments  are  practicable,  and  the 
wide  use  of  the  cornet  in  popular  concerts  illus- 
trates this  fact. 

The  tone-colour  of  the  cornet  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  that  of  the  trumpet.  Except  in 
the  hands  of  a  skilled  player,  it  becomes  coarse 
and  blatant  in  quality.  It  is  so  much  easier  to 
play  than  the  trumpet  that  many  small  orchestras 
admit  it  to  their  ranks  as  a  substitute  for  the  latter, 
but  no  great  conductor  will  tolerate  it.'  It  has 
sometimes  been  used  by  composers,  mostly  in 
France,  but  only  where  its  own  special  effect  is 
desired.  The  quality  of  its  tone  is  partly  due  to 
its  mouthpiece,  which  is  cup-shaped,  and  deeper 
than  that  of  the  trumpet.  Sometimes  trumpet 
players  effect  a  compromise  between  the  two 
instruments  by  using  a  cornet  mouthpiece  on  a 
trumpet  tube.     Berlioz  claimed  that  a  combina- 

'  Yet  in  America  the  cornet  is  found  replacing  the  trumpet  in  alJ 
orchestras  except  two  or  three  of  the  largest  ones. 


232  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

tion  of  cornets  and  trumpets  produced  a  distinct- 
ive colour  of  its  own,  but  most  modern  writers 
seem  to  have  banished  the  cornet  entirely  from 
the  orchestra. 


CHAPTER   X. 


TROMBONES    AND    TUBAS 


In  the  classical  orchestra,  where  the  instru- 
ments were  divided  into  three  definite  groups,  the 
string  and  wood-wind  divisions  existed  as  quar- 
tets. The  string  band,  however,  could  play  its 
concerted  passages  without  the  contrabass,  and 
by  the  use  of  first  and  second  violins  gave  four- 
part  harmony  with  three  instruments  instead  of 
four.  The  case  is  similar  with  the  brasses,  and 
composers  formerly  had  to  make  their  harmony 
with  only  three  instruments,  horns,  trumpets,  and 
trombones,  and  sometimes  with  only  two,  if  the 
trombones  were  omitted.  In  more  modern  times, 
the  introduction  of  the  tuba  has  completed  the 
brass  quartet,  but  as  these  instruments  vary  in 
their  effects,  they  are  not  used  in  such  definitely 
prescribed  parts  as  those  of  the  strings.  Often 
the  horns  form  a  quartet  by  themselves,  the 
trumpets  are  treated  separately,  and  three  trom- 
bones and  a  bass  tuba  make  up  another  quartet. 

233 


234  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

Although  the  trombone  was  not  admitted  to 
the  orchestra  until  the  nineteenth  century,  it  is 
one  of  the  oldest  of  instruments.  Its  name,  in 
Italian,  signifies  a  large  trumpet,  exactly  as  the 
old  violone  meant  a  large  viola.  The  old  Eng- 
lish name  of  the  instrument  was  the  sackbut, 
which  has  been  derived  from  the  Spanish  or 
Moorish  term  sacabuche,  signifying  a  pump. 
This  derivation  is  eminently  descriptive  of  the 
slide  trombone,  which  is  played  by  drawing  in 
and  out  a  sliding  joint,  with  a  motion  not  unlike 
that  of  pumping. 

There  seems  now  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
slide  was  a  contrivance  of  extremely  ancient  times, 
antedating  by  many  centuries  the  use  of  crooks 
or  valves.  Its  invention  is  claimed  for  Tyrtaeus, 
in  the  early  date  of  685  b.  c,  while  it  is  some- 
times ascribed  to  the  mythical  Osiris.  The  slide 
cannot  be  definitely  found  in  the  ancient  paint- 
ings and  sculptures,  but  there  are  several  accounts 
of  the  unearthing  of  a  trombone  at  Pompeii,  in 
the  year  1738.  One  author  describes  it  as  a 
bronze  instrument  with  gold  mouthpiece,  and 
adds  that  the  King  of  Naples  gave  it  to  George 
III.  of  England,  who  happened  to  be  present  at 
the  discovery.     A  later  writer  mentions  the  in- 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  235 

strument  as  being  in  the  royal  collection  at 
Windsor  Castle,  but  it  cannot  now  be  found, 
so  the  entire  story  is  doubted.  Arcadius,  writing 
on  Greek  accents  in  a.  d.  200,  draws  a  simile 
from  certain  contrivances  which  could  make  the 
aulos  extend  up  and  down  as  well  as  backwards 
and  forwards,  —  evidently  some  sort  of  a  slide. 
Mersenne  attributes  to  Apuleius  an  old  Latin 
passage,  which  says  that  when  the  channels 
(canales)  of  the  tuba  (trumpet)  are  drawn  in  or 
out  by  the  right  hand,  musical  sounds  may  be 
produced  from  the  instrument. 

By  the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  trombones 
were  familiarly  known,  especially  in  Germany. 
In  1520  there  existed  a  well-known  Posaunen- 
macher,  Hans  Menschel,  who  made  instruments 
at  least  as  good  as  the  trombones  of  to-day.  A 
century  later,  Michael  Pr^torius,  in  his  "Thea- 
trum  Instrumentorum,"  gave  excellent  figures  of 
trombones  corresponding  to  the  alto,  tenor,  bass, 
and  contrabass  forms  known  at  present.  The 
works  of  Bach,  as  might  be  expected,  abound  in 
passages  for  trombones  of  every  kind,  even 
including  a  small  soprano  form.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  Handel's  aria,  "The  trumpet  shall 
sound,"  was  formerly  given  to  a  small  alto  trom- 


236 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


SLIDE 
TROMBONE 


bone,  and  known  in  Ger- 
many by  the  words,  "  Es 
tont  die  Posaune."  Ber- 
lioz says  that  the  cornetto 
of  Gluck's  Itahan  score  of 
"  Orfeo  "  was  really  a  so- 
prano trombone,  but  offers 
no  proof. 

The  trombone,  like  the 
trumpet,  is   a   long    brass 
tube,   cylindrical    ex- 
cept for  the  bell  and 
the    mouthpiece.      In- 
stead of  being  bent  upon  itself,  like 
the     trumpet,     the      trombone      is 
arranged  in  three  parallel  lines  con- 
nected by  two  short  curves.      One 
of  these  curves  forms  the  slide,  and 
is  provided  with  two  tubular  arms 
that    fit    over    two   of    the    parallel 
tube-sections     of    the    instrument. 
The  tube  of  the  trombone  is  com- 
paratively wider  than  that  of  either 
the  horn  or  trumpet,  and  the  tones 
of    the     instrument     are     therefore 
richer  and  fuller,  though   less  bril- 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  23/ 

liant.  The  upper  notes  of  the  harmonic  series 
are  rendered  difficult,  but  in  compensation  the 
pedal  tones,  in  which  the  air  column  vibrates  as 
a  whole,  can  often  be  produced. 

The  trombone  usually  found  in  orchestras  Is 
the  tenor  instrument,  and  with  the  slide  closed  it 
is  about  nine  feet  long,  giving  as  its  fundamental 
note  (pedal  tone)  the  B-flat  over  two  octaves 
below  middle  C.  Its  first  harmonic  is  an  octave 
higher,  corresponding  to  that  of  the  B-fiat  alto 
horn.  But  while  the  horn  compass  includes 
many  high  harmonics,  that  of  the  trombone  con- 
sists of  but  few.  The  actual  notes  in  the  latter 
case  are  F  and  B-fiat  just  below  middle  C,  and 
the  D,  F,  A-fiat  and  B-fiat  just  above  it.  By 
referring  to  the  table  on  page  dd^  the  reader  will 
see  that  the  A-fiat,  formed  by  vibrating  segments 
one-seventh  of  the  total  length  of  the  tube,  is 
slightly  out  of  pitch  with  our  scale.  The  C  and 
D  above  this  are  sometimes  used  by  solo  players, 
but  they  are  too  difficult  for  ordinary  orchestral 
use. 

When  the  slide  is  closed,  it  is  said  to  be  in  its 
first  position.  As  it  is  drawn  out,  it  lengthens 
the  tube,  thus  lowering  the  tone.  There  are  in 
all  seven  positions,  each  successive  one  lowering 


238  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

the  pitch  by  a  semitone,  the  entire  elongation 
making  possible  a  total  alteration  of  six  semi- 
tones, or  an  augmented  fourth.  Thus  a  B-flat 
may  be  lowered  into  an  E,  and  an  F  into  a  B. 
This  gives  the  trombone  a  complete  chromatic 
scale  throughout  all  its  compass  except  the  octave 
between  its  pedal  tones  and  the  first  harmonic. 
Here  there  is  a  gap  of  five  semitones,  as  the 
highest  pedal  tone  is  B-flat,  and  the  B-flat  above 
it  can  be  lowered  by  the  slide  only  as  far  as  E. 
M.  Sax,  the  instrument  maker  of  Paris,  again 
came  to  the  rescue,  and  invented  a  trombone  pro- 
vided with  a  piston  for  the  performer's  left  thumb, 
which  enabled  him  to  fill  the  tonal  gap.  But  this 
contrivance  is  not  much  used,  even  to-day. 

The  pedal  tones  of  the  trombone  are  some  of 
its  most  valuable  notes.  They  are  of  indifferent 
quality  on  the  alto  form,  but  much  prized  on  all 
the  lower  instruments.  They  are  difficult  to  pro- 
duce, and  on  the  tenor  trombone  there  are  but 
four,  descending  from  the  lowest  B-flat  by  semi- 
tones as  the  slide  is  drawn  out.  These  four, 
however,  differ  from  the  upper  tones  in  being 
more  gruff  and  ponderous  in  quality,  and  well 
repay  the  practice  needed  for  the  performer  to 
master  them.     They  cannot  always  be  produced 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  239 

upon  the  bass  trombone,  but  when  they  are 
obtained  they  are  ahnost  overpowenng  in  their 
fierceness. 

The  use  of  the  shde  renders  the  trombone 
more  perfect  in  tone  than  any  of  the  instruments 
except  the  viohn  family.  Not  only  can  the  slide 
be  used  in  correcting  those  harmonics  that  are  out 
of  tune  with  our  scale,  but  it  also  enables  the 
performer  to  produce  varied  effects  by  sharping 
or  flatting  his  tones  at  will,  as  the  violinist  does 
also  in  certain  progressions.  Trills  are  practi- 
cable on  all  the  upper  notes  of  the  instrument, 
though  they  are  not  effective  on  the  bass  trom- 
bone. Rapid  passages  are  unsuited  to  its 
character,  and  are  usually  dif^cult,  except  for 
those  few  phrases  that  lie  entirely  in  one  har- 
monic series  and  can  be  blown  without  change 
of  position.  Such  quick  execution  is  never 
demanded  in  orchestral  works,  though  allowable 
in  solo  pieces.  A  trombone  concerto  by  Fer- 
dinand David,  for  instance,  abounds  in  florid 
passages.  In  these  the  performer  picks  out  the 
easiest  way  of  reaching  the  desired  result,  as 
in  many  cases  he  can  produce  a  given  tone  either 
by  altering  the  pressure  of  blowing  or  by  chang- 
ing the  position  of  the  slide. 


240  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Of  the  various  sizes  of  the  trombone,  the 
soprano,  or  smallest,  has  now  disappeared  from 
the  musical  world.  It  stood  in  the  key  of  B-flat, 
with  its  first  harmonic  a  tone  below  middle  C  in 
pitch.  It  is  found  in  several  of  Bach's  cantatas, 
and  in  the  "  Kyrie  "  of  Mozart's  unfinished  Mass 
in  C  minor,  but  not  in  any  later  works.  It  was 
often  used  to  double  the  soprano  voice,  —  in  fact 
all  the  trombones  seem  to  have  been  employed 
for  a  similar  purpose,  forming  an  instrumental 
group  to  play  in  unison  with  the  vocal  quartet. 
The  pedal  notes  of  the  soprano  trombone,  like 
those  of  the  alto,  were  not  usually  called  for. 

The  alto  trombone  stands  in  F  ;  that  is  to  say, 
its  fundamental  tone  is  F,  and  its  harmonic  series 
with  closed  slides  is  based  on  that  note.  Its 
lower  register  is  inferior  in  quality,  and  as  it 
corresponds  to  the  best  part  of  the  tenor  trom- 
bone, it  is  never  needed.  But  its  upper  notes 
are  superior  to  the  same  tones  on  any  other  in- 
strument of  this  family,  and  they  might  well 
be  included  in  some  of  our  extensive  modern 
orchestras. 

The  tenor  trombone  is  the  instrument  most 
usually  adopted  to-day.  Its  compass  has  been 
given  already.     The    orchestras    of  the  present 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  24 1 

generally  contain  three  trombones,  and  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  these  are  all  tenor  trombones. 
Because  there  are  often  three  separate  parts  for 
them,  they  are  sometimes  given  different  names, 
but  this  proceeding  is  always  misleading.  There 
is  no  instrument  in  the  entire  orchestra  which  has 
been  written  for  in  more  different  ways  than  the 
trombone.  In  the  old  days  each  instrument 
received  its  special  staff  and  was  notated  in  the 
clef  pertaining  to  its  name.  In  modern  times 
the  trombone  parts  usually  cover  two  staffs,  with 
alto  or  tenor  clef  for  the  upper  and  bass  for  the 
lower.  In  such  a  case  the  ophicleide  or  tuba 
usually  goes  with  the  bass  trombone.  Still 
another  method  in  use  places  all  these  instru- 
ments on  the  same  staff,  with  the  bass  clef. 
None  of  the  trombones  are  transposing  instru- 
ments, all  being  written  exactly  as  they  sound. 

The  bass  trombone  is  made  in  several  differ- 
ent sizes.  That  in  G,  a  minor  third  below  the 
tenor  instrument,  is  the  highest  in  pitch.  Other 
forms  are  met  with  in  F  and  in  E-flat,  a  fourth 
and  fifth  below  the  usual  B-flat  form.  The  bass 
trombone  is  only  needed  in  producing  ex- 
tremely low  tones,  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
higher  instruments.      It  causes  great  fatigue   on 


242  ORCHESTRAL  INSTRUMENTS 

the  part  of  the  player,  and  makes  inordinate 
demands  upon  his  lungs.  The  composer,  there- 
fore, should  call  for  only  a  few  of  its  notes  at  a 
time,  and  give  frequent  rests.  Wagner,  in  his 
Bayreuth  orchestra,  included  a  contrabass  trom- 
bone, even  more  difficult  to  play  and  more 
stupefying  in  its  effect.  The  key  of  this  in- 
strument is  B-flat,  an  octave  below  that  of  the 
tenor  trombone.  Its  pedal  tones  are  of  course 
impossible,  but  with  the  use  of  the  slide  it  can 
reach  the  pitch  of  the  lowest  E  on  the  piano- 
forte, and  it  gives  this  tonal  grunt  in  the  opera 
of  "  Siegfried." 

The  trombone  is  the  chief  of  those  wind  in- 
struments that  depict  heroic  emotions.  It  pos- 
sesses in  a  superlative  degree  the  qualities  of 
nobility  and  grandeur.  Its  deep  and  powerful 
tones  speak  in  the  most  poetic  accents,  and  may 
reflect  anything  from  sacred  religious  calm  to  the 
liveliest  acclamations  of  martial  glory.  It  is 
especially  effective  in  sombre  passages,  and  has 
a  forbidding,  almost  threatening  quality  of  tone. 
Its  loud  tones  are  unusually  menacing,  and 
Gluck  has  used  them  skilfully  in  this  vein,  in 
the  Chorus  of  Furies  in  Act  II.  of  "  Iphigenie  en 
Tauride."     Still  more  admirable  is  their  wrathful 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  243 

chord  in  answer  to  Alceste's  defiance  of  the  gods 
of  death,  in  another  of  his  works. 

Mozart  understood  well  the  use  of  the  trom- 
bone. It  adds  its  rich  colour  to  the  priests' 
services  in  the  "  Magic  Flute,"  and  is  given 
some  impressive  chords  at  the  beginning  of  the 
great  Requiem.  More  famous  than  these  are 
the  weird,  unearthly  effects  obtained  by  the  trom- 
bone in  "  Don  Giovanni,"  When  the  statue 
of  the  murdered  Don  Pedro  actually  speaks  in 
response  to  that  ribald  nobleman's  mock  invita- 
tion to  supper,  the  trombones  are  heard  in 
chords  of  menace  and  solemn  warning. 

Beethoven  was  familiar  with  the  instrument, 
but  it  did  not  appear  in  his  earlier  works.  In 
the  fifth  symphony  it  entered  the  symphonic 
orchestra  for  the  first  time.  Although  it  oc- 
curred in  the  sixth  and  ninth  also,  it  did  not 
have  any  important  work  assigned  to  it.  As 
late  as  1823,  it  is  said,  Beethoven  eagerly  seized 
upon  a  visiting  trombone-player,  and  made 
lively  inquiries  about  the  use  of  the  instrument 
in  high  passages.  That  he  obtained  full  knowl- 
edge of  all  its  possibilities  is  shown,  not  only  by 
the  finale  of  the  ninth  symphony,  but  by  a  letter 
that  he  wrote  a  few  years  later.      In  this  letter  he 


244  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

had  occasion  to  send  a  complaint  to  his  publisher 
Schott,  and  after  some  lines  of  playful  abuse  he 
added  to  the  signature  a  trombone  trill,  with 
the  explanatory  word  minacciando  (threateningly), 
the  whole  marked  for  the  gruff  sixteen-foot  bass 
trombone.  This  instrument  would  sound  only 
a  tone  above  Wagner's  eighteen-foot  contrabass 
colossus. 

Schubert,  the  apostle  of  purity  and  delicacy 
in  music,  obtained  some  beautiful  effects  with 
trombones  played  softly  against  the  strings.  In 
many  passages  of  his  great  C-major  symphony 
they  are  called  into  requisition,  an  especially 
prominent  phrase  occurring  in  the  coda  of  the 
first  movement.  Weber  and  Schumann  also 
appreciated  the  instrument,  and  Spontini  em- 
ployed it  well  in  the  funeral  march  of  the  "  Ves- 
tale."  Mendelssohn  admired  the  trombone 
greatly,  considering  it  too  solemn  an  instrument 
to  be  used  except  upon  special  occasions. 

Berlioz,  as  usual,  capped  the  climax  in  respect 
to  number  by  calling  for  no  less  than  sixteen 
trombones  in  his  Requiem.  He  wished  to  re- 
produce the  effect  of  the  Day  of  Judgment, 
with  Gabriel's  trumpet  sounding,  so  he  called  for 
four  groups  of  brasses  (horns,  trumpets,  trom- 


FRANZ    SCHUBERT 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS 


245 


bones,  and  tubas  or  ophicleides),  and  placed  one 
at  each  corner  of  his  forces  to  echo  the  sound  to 
and    fro.      Even    without    these   extra 
brass  bands,  he  demanded  quite  enough 
instruments    to  give  an    adequate   re- 
production   of    the    craclc    of    doom. 
The   score  called   for  a  full 
band  of  strings,  four  flutes, 
two    oboes,    four    clarinets, 
eight  bassoons,  an    English 
horn,  twelve  horns,  four  cor- 
nets, sixteen  tenor  trombones, 
tubas,     four      ophicleides,      twel 
trumpets,  sixteen  kettle-drums,  two 
bass  drums,  three  pairs  of  cymbals, 
and  a  gong. 

In  most  military  bands  a  valve 
trombone  is  now  used,  producing 
its  scale  by  pistons  instead  of  the 
slide.  This  instrument  is  easier  to 
play  than  its  orchestral  relative,  and 
allows  the  performer  to  give  more 
rapid  execution.  But  these  advan- 
tages are  more  than  counterbalanced 
by  inferiority  in  tone-colour,  and 
this  fact  alone  ought  to  bar  it  out   valve  trombone 


246  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

from  the  orchestra,  although  it  is  occasionally 
found  there. 

The  tuba,  like  the  trombone,  is  a  member  of 
a  family  of  instruments  covering  a  large  range 
in  pitch.  As  in  the  case  of  the  trombone,  the 
smaller  members  of  the  group  form  no  part  of 
the  regular  orchestra,  but  under  the  name  of  sax 
horns,  they  take  part  in  military  bands,  especially 
in  France.  There  are  in  all  six  divisions  of  this 
family  :  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  baritone,  bass,  and 
contrabass.  The  tenor,  and  also  a  small-bored 
baritone  form,  are  known  as  alt-horns.  The 
lower  instruments  constitute  the  group  known 
as  tubas,  and  under  this  name  are  found  in 
modern  scores. 

The  most  usual  instrument  is  the  bass  tuba, 
or  bombardon.  It  is  made  of  brass,  and  is 
played  with  a  mouthpiece  similar  to  that  of  the 
trombone.  The  tuba  is  equipped  with  pistons, 
like  the  valve  horn,  but  differs  from  that  instru- 
ment in  having  four  instead  of  three.  The  extra 
piston  lowers  the  pitch  a  perfect  fourth,  and  in 
combination  with  the  others  can  fill  a  gap  of  an 
octave  in  the  harmonic  series.  Some  combina- 
tions of  valves  will  throw  the  tone  slightly  off 
the  correct  pitch,  but  as  the  tuba  is  played  with 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS 


247 


loose  lips,  the  player  can  correct  this  by  blowing 
at  the  required  strength.  This  process  is  similar 
to  the  production  of  the  factitious  notes  on  the 
horn. 

The  tenor  tuba,  known  as  the  euphonium, 
stands  in  the  key  of  B-flat.  Its  lowest  natural 
tone  is  over  two  octaves 
below  middle  C,  bringing 
it  in  unison  with  the  tenor 
trombone.  Its  compass 
extends  upward  two  and 
a  half  octaves  from  that 
note,  while  a  few  tones 
still  lower  in  pitch  can  be 
produced  by  the  pistons. 
The  bass  tuba  sounds  in 
the  key  of  E-flat,  a  fifth 
lower  than  the  euphonium. 
Its  deeper  tones  are  fuller 
and  richer  than  those  of  the  smaller  instrument, 
and  are  more  often  called  into  use.  The  contra- 
bass tuba  is  still  lower,  being  usually  made  in 
B-flat,  an  octave  below  the  euphonium.  Wag- 
ner has  included  it  in  his  Bayreuth  orchestra, 
and  has  written  for  it  as  deep  as  the  lowest  D  on 
the  piano. 


BASS   TUBA 


248  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

The  use  of  the  tubas  has  been  greatly  Increased 
by  Wagner.  In  the  scores  of  his  Trilogy  he  calls 
for  no  less  than  five,  the  two  bass  tubas  being  in 
F  instead  of  E-flat.  One  of  his  many  effective 
combinations  Is  that  of  a  tuba  as  bass  to  three 
trombones  In  four-part  harmony.  In  its  ca- 
pacity of  the  deepest  brass  instrument,  It  is  used 
to  form  the  bass  of  the  brass  quartet,  often  In 
unison  with  the  low  trombones.  Some  com- 
posers have  employed  Its  softer  notes  as  bass  for 
the  strings,  with  fair  results.  The  tuba  part  Is 
usually  written  as  it  sounds,  though  sometimes 
in  France  the  instrument  is  treated  as  trans- 
posing. 

The  tuba  has  a  distinctive  colour  of  its  own 
that  is  of  great  value.  It  lacks  the  smoothness 
of  the  trombone,  but  its  harsh,  gruff  quality 
strikes  the  ear  at  once.  Wagner  has  made  an 
excellent  use  of  It  in  the  first  act  of  "  Die 
Walkiire,"  to  typify  the  fierce  character  of 
Hunding.  The  weary  Siegmund  has  been 
driven  by  a  storm  and  the  pursuit  of  enemies 
to  take  refuge  in  Hunding's  forest  hut,  where 
he  Is  comforted  and  refreshed  by  Slegllnde. 
Suddenly  the  footsteps  of  the  returning  warrior 
are  heard,  and  before  he  has  time  to  enter,  the 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  249 

orchestra  sounds  forth  the  motive  that  is  to 
typify  him.  It  is  an  abrupt,  martial  phrase,  and 
when  given,  as  in  this  case,  on  the  tubas  alone,  it 
becomes  absolutely  brutal  in  effect.  Again,  in 
"  Siegfried,"  where  the  dragon  Fafner  is  dis- 
turbed in  the  possession  of  his  golden  hoard  and 
comes  forth  to  meet  his  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  fearless  hero,  the  tubas,  especially  the  contra- 
bass tuba,  are  frequently  called  into  requisition. 
These  two  examples  show  that,  although  more 
lim.ited  in  their  effects  than  the  other  brass  in- 
struments, the  tubas  are  still  useful  members  of 
the  orchestra. 

The  family  of  keyed  bugles,  formerly  so 
popular,  has  no  longer  any  representative  in  the 
orchestra.  Its  most  important  member,  the 
ophicleide,  has  been  called  for  until  recent  years, 
but  is  now  entirely  superseded  by  the  tuba. 
The  name  ophicleide  comes  from  two  Greek 
words  meaning  key  and  serpent,  and  gives  an 
appropriate  description  of  the  instrument.  Alto 
ophicleides  existed,  but  their  quality  was  dis- 
agreeable and  they  lacked  precision  in  pitch,  so 
they  are  now  discarded.  Two  kinds  of  bass 
ophicleide  were  employed,  one  in  C  and  the 
other  in  B-f^at.     The  contrabass  ophicleide,  still 


250 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


deeper,  demanded  such  lung  power  that  it  could 
be  played  only  by  the  strongest  men. 

The  tone  of  the  ophicleide  is  powerful,  but 
decidedly    obtrusive.     It    does    not    blend    well 

with  the  orchestra,  and  this 
is  one  reason  why  the  tubas 
have  supplanted  it.  In  the 
older  scores,  however,  it  is 
often  to  be  met  with,  and 
even  in  the  last  half-century 
we  find  it  employed  by 
Schumann,  in  his  cantata 
"  Paradise  and  the  Peri." 
The  best  known  example 
of  its  use  occurs  in  Men- 
delssohn's "  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream "  music, 
where  it  gives  an  amusing 
reproduction  of  the  snores 
uttered  by  the  drunken 
weaver  Bottom  in  his  sleep. 

An  instrument  now  entirely  obsolete  is  the 
serpent.  This  was  a  wooden  tube  a  little  over 
eight  feet  long,  sounding  therefore  the  note  two 
octaves  and  a  semitone  below  middle  C  for  its 
fundamental  tone.       It  was  provided  with  keys, 


SERPENT 


GEOR(i    FRIEDRICH    HANDEL 


TROMBONES  AND    TUBAS  25  I 

and  belonged  therefore  to  the  same  group  as  the 
old  cornetto.  It  has  been  used  by  Beethoven 
and  Mendelssohn,  and  appears  for  the  last  time 
in  some  of  Wagner's  early  scores.  It  obtained 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  tube  was  bent  in 
actual  serpentine  curves,  for  ease  in  performing. 
Its  tone  was  powerful,  but  decidedly  rough,  and 
not  greatly  prized  by  composers.  Handel,  on 
hearing  it  for  the  first  time,  asked  his  com- 
rades, in  his  usual  broken  English,  "  Vat  is 
dat?  "  Its  tone  had  so  disgusted  him,  that  when 
he  was  informed  of  its  name,  he  replied,  "  It 
certainly  cannot  be  de  serpent  dat  seduced  Eve." 


CHAPTER   XI. 

INSTRUMENTS    OF    PERCUSSION 

All  the  instruments  previously  described  have 
been  capable  of  producing  many  tones  and  play- 
ing definite  melodies.  There  remains  a  large 
number,  of  more  or  less  importance,  that  cannot 
produce  such  melodies.  These  instruments  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  —  those  that  give  an 
actual  tone,  and  those  without  any  definite  pitch. 

By  far  the  most  important  are  the  kettle-drums, 
known  in  foreign  countries  under  the  name  of 
Pauken  (Germany),  timbales  (France),  or  timpani 
(Italy).  These  consist  of  hemispheres  of  copper, 
set  at  a  sloping  angle  on  tripods,  and  covered  by 
a  parchment  known  as  the  head.  This  head  is 
held  on  the  drum  by  a  metal  ring,  and  around 
the  edges  are  certain  screws  by  which  the  tension 
can  be  regulated  by  the  performer.  These  in- 
struments are  often  spoken  of  as  the  drums,  and 
in  orchestral  parlance  are  always  meant  by   this 

term. 

252 


INSTRUMENTS   OF  PERCUSSION 


253 


The  kettle-drum  is  not  only  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  note  of  definite  pitch,  but  in  the  hands 
of  a  skilful  player  can  even  give  variations 
in  the  quality  of  this  tone.  It  is  provided  with 
two  pairs  of  drumsticks,  one  set  usually 
wholly  of  wood,  and 
the  other  furnished 
with  tips  of  soft 
sponge.  Sometimes 
a  third  pair  is  added, 
tipped  with  leather. 
These  different  sticks 
each  give  a  special 
effect  to  the  tone. 
The  performer  may 
also  vary  its  quality 
by  striking  the  drum 
at  different  points,  a 
stroke  near  the  edge 
producing   a    sharper 

and  brighter  result  than  one  near  the  middle  of 
the  head.  The  usual  place  for  the  blow  is  about 
half-way  between  these  two  points.  Sometimes, 
when  the  composer  desires  an  especially  dull  and 
hollow  effect,  he  writes  for  muffled  drums,  in 
which  case  they  are  covered  with  pieces  of  cloth. 


KETTLE-DRUM 


2  54  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

which  subdue  the  sound  and  shorten  the  duration 
of  the  tone. 

There  are  always  at  least  two  drums  of  differ- 
ent sizes  in  an  orchestra,  both  being  played  by  a 
single  performer.  The  larger  drum  can  be  tuned 
to  any  note  from  F,  an  octave  and  a  half  below 
middle  C,  up  to  and  including  the  C  an  octave 
below  it.  The  range  of  the  smaller  drum  begins 
with  the  B-flat  of  the  larger  instrument,  and  ex- 
tends upward  a  perfect  fifth  to  F.  This  interval 
cannot  be  exceeded  without  making  the  head  too 
loose  on  the  one  hand  or  putting  it  in  danger  of 
splitting  on  the  other.  The  notation  is  always 
in  the  bass  clef.  Formerly  the  drums  were 
treated  as  transposing  instruments,  and  written 
in  C,  but  that  method  did  not  always  show 
clearly  the  exact  pitch,  as  the  words  "  Drum  in 
F  "  might  refer  to  either  and  cause  an  error  of 
an  octave  in  pitch.  It  is  now  customary  to 
write  the  actual  notes  for  the  drums,  but  without 
introducing  accidentals  into  the  music ;  a  drum 
in  A-flat,  for  example,  would  be  mentioned  as 
such  in  the  list  of  instruments,  but  would  have 
its  notes  always  written  as  A-natural. 

For  a  long  time  the  drums  were  tuned  simply 
to  the  tonic  and  dominant  of  the  key  required, 


INSTRUMENTS   OF  PERCUSSION  255 

and  were  used  either  to  enforce  the  rhythm  or 
merely  for  purposes  of  noise.  They  were  also 
much  used  in  the  humble  occupation  of  reenforcing 
the  bass  of  the  harmony.  Gradually  their  capac- 
ities were  recognised,  and  more  definite  results 
obtained  from  them.  They  can  give  tones  that 
are  long  or  short,  as  well  as  loud  or  soft.  The 
roll,  or  trill,  is  another  valuable  effect  produced 
from  them.  When  more  than  two  drums  are 
used,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  modern  or- 
chestras, they  can  give  solo  touches  of  actual 
melody. 

Beethoven  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  artistic 
possibilities  of  the  drum.  "  Until  Beethoven's 
time,"  says  an  English  critic,  "  the  drum  had, 
with  rare  exceptions,  been  used  as  a  mere  means 
of  producing  noise  —  of  increasing  the  din  of 
the  fortes ;  but  Beethoven,  with  that  feeling  of 
affection  which  he  had  for  the  humblest  member 
of  the  orchestra,  has  raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a 
solo  instrument."  It  was  Beethoven,  too,  who 
freed  the  drum  from  the  fetters  imposed  upon  it 
by  the  old  custom  of  tuning  in  fifths  or  fourths. 
In  his  eighth  and  ninth  symphonies  he  calls  for 
drums  in  octaves,  giving  them  a  notable  passage 
in  unison  with  the  bassoons  in  the   former  work. 


256  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

In  one  movement  of  the  seventh  symphony  they 
are  tuned  in  sixths.  In  the  "Dona  Nobis"  of 
his  Mass  in  D,  the  drums  are  tuned  in  B-flat 
and  F,  two  notes  related  only  distantly  to  the 
key  of  the  movement.  In  all  his  earlier  works, 
even  in  the  first  symphony,  they  play  a  promi- 
nent part,  and  in  the  fifth  symphony  they  are 
struck  together  to  produce  an  actual  chord. 
Modern  composers  have  followed  Beethoven  in 
having  the  drums  tuned  to  other  pitches  besides 
the  simple  tonic  and  dominant.  Mendelssohn, 
for  example,  has  written  for  the  combinations 
of  C-sharp  and  A,  D  and  E,  G  and  F,  and 
B-flat  and  D-flat. 

For  a  long  time  two  drums  were  deemed 
sufficient  for  orchestral  purposes.  Berlioz  says 
that  it  took  seventy  years  for  musicians  to  dis- 
cover that  it  was  possible  to  use  three  drums  ; 
but  this  statement  displays  the  same  quality  of 
exaggeration  that  is  found  in  his  instrumental 
scores,  for  Weber  employed  three,  in  his  over- 
ture to  "  Peter  Schmoll,"  as  early  as  the  year 
1807.  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  and  RafF  have 
also  used  this  number,  and  Auber's  "  Masani- 
ello  "  overture  cannot  be  properly  played  with 
less  than   three,  as  the   notes   G,  D,  and  A  are 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION  257 

demanded  without  time  being  given  for  the  per- 
former to  retune  his  G  drum  to  A.  In  case 
a  composer  desires  a  change  in  pitch  during  a 
piece,  he  must  give  rests  enough  to  enable  the 
performer  to  carry  out  his  directions.  Even  in 
cases  where  this  is  done,  the  player  often  finds  it 
more  convenient  to  have  an  extra  drum  at  hand. 
When  the  third  drum  is  included  in  the  score, 
it  is  usually  tuned  to  the  subdominant,  although 
other  tunings  often  enable  all  three  drums  to 
play  in  harmony  and  produce  chords.  Some- 
times more  than  three  are  required.  Wagner  has 
four  in  his  Trilogy,  while  Spohr,  in  his  "  Cal- 
vary," calls  for  six  in  order  to  depict  the  earth- 
quake at  the  Crucifixion.  The  climax  of  noise 
is  reached,  as  usual,  by  Berlioz,  who,  as  we  have 
seen,  demanded  sixteen  drums  and  ten  drummers 
in  the  score  of  his  Requiem.  But  Berlioz  has 
shown  all  his  customary  skill  in  employing  ket- 
tle-drums, and  the  chord-trill  for  three  drums 
in  his  Symphonie  Fantastique,  suggesting  the 
thunder  of  the  tempest  that  bereft  the  shepherd 
of  his  companion  in  the  fields,  is  one  of  the 
best  passages  in  existence  for  these  instruments. 
Meyerbeer,  in  "  Robert  le  Diable,"  called  for 
four  drums,  notated  in   G,  C,  D,  and  E,  accord- 


258  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

ing  to  the  old  style,  and  with  their  aid  produced 
a  tuneful  march  many  measures  in  length. 

Wagner,  to  whom  must  be  ascribed  almost  all 
the  richness  and  variety  of  our  present  orchestral 
colouring,  found  a  new  and  excellent  use  for 
the  drum.  He  employed  it  in  moments  of 
anxiety,  or  at  the  advent  of  some  great  crisis, 
to  emphasise  the  effect  of  suspense  or  fear  by 
soft  strokes  in  solo  passages.  These  taps  serve 
only  to  intensify  the  sudden  silence  of  the  rest 
of  the  orchestra.  The  low,  irregular  strokes  of 
the  instrument  are  not  unlike  heart-beats  made 
audible.  Examples  of  this  device  are  to  be 
found  in  "  Lohengrin,"  where  Telramund  drops 
dead  at  the  mere  sight  of  the  holy  sword  of  the 
Grail  Knight  whom  he  had  wished  to  kill ;  in 
the  "  Flying  Dutchman,"  where  Senta,  inspired 
to  sympathy  by  the  story  of  that  hapless  mariner, 
is  suddenly  confronted  by  his  real  self;  and  in  the 
"  Gotterdammerung,"  after  Siegfried  is  stabbed 
by  Hagen.  Another  wonderful  solo  phrase  for 
kettle-drum  is  found  in  the  first  act  of  "  Die 
Walkiire,"  where  that  instrument  echoes  with 
admirable  results  the  strongly  marked  rhythm 
of  the   Hunding  motive. 

There  have  been  many  efforts  to  simplify  the 


INSTRUMENTS   OF  PERCUSSION 


259 


Chief  Scrcio- 


tuning  of  the  drum,  but  none  of  them  have  met 
with  complete  success.  They  are  all  aimed  to 
substitute  a  single  motion  for  the  separate  move- 
ments employed  in  adjusting  the  different  screws. 
They  include  such  contrivances  as  converging 
iron  bars,  an  endless  cord  around  the  edge  of  the 
head  to  be  tightened  by 
outside  manipulation, 
and  an  internal  brass 
hoop  to  spread  the  drum 
near  the  top.  None  of 
these  produce  absolutely 
correct  results,  for  the 
parchment  is  liable  to 
give  unevenly,  and  can 
then  be  properly  tight- 
ened only  by  the  hand- 
screws. 

The  idea  of  this  mechanical  tuning  is  due  to 
the  great  kettle-drummer  Pfund,  who  flourished 
in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He 
has  done  other  services  for  the  instrument,  such 
as  publishing  a  complete  method  for  kettle-drum, 
and  it  was  he  who  first  won  for  the  post  of 
drummer  whatever  dignity  and  importance  it  has 
to-day.      Before    his    time    the    kettle-drum  was 


MACHINE   KETTLE-DRUM 


260  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

usually  assigned  to  any  player  who  was  too  old 
or  too  feeble  to  continue  on  some  other  instru- 
ment. But  Pfund  studied  it  with  enthusiasm 
from  his  earliest  years,  and  in  after  life  became 
drummer  under  Mendelssohn,  in  the  great 
Gewandhaus  orchestra  at  Leipsic.  Under  his 
skilful  strokes  the  instrument  produced  a  tone 
of  remarkable  beauty,  almost  bell-like  in  its  ful- 
ness and  resonance." 

The  kettle-drummer  usually  has  few  notes  and 
many  rests  during  an  orchestral  performance. 
According  to  strict  rule,  he  should  count  these 
rests  and  be  ready  to  come  in  at  the  proper  time. 
But  in  actual  practice  many  drummers  rely  upon 
the  conductor  to  give  them  the  needed  signal, 
or  find  their  place  by  means  of  the  few  bars  pre- 

'  Pfund  once  produced  an  unexpected  effect  from  the  kettle-drum, 
which  was  probably  unique.  He  was  extremely  miserly  in  his  in- 
stincts, and  kept  close  watch  over  his  money.  One  day,  in  an 
unusual  fit  of  generosity,  he  lent  a  thaler  to  a  fellow  performer.  He 
soon  regretted  his  act,  however,  and  kept  bothering  his  companion 
for  the  money  so  continually  that  the  latter  determined  to  be  re- 
venged. Choosing  the  last  minute  before  a  concert,  while  Pfund 
had  gone  out  for  a  moment,  the  debtor  placed  a  row  of  pfennige, 
amounting  to  the  thaler,  around  the  edge  of  the  drum.  When 
Pfund  returned  to  take  part  in  the  music,  his  first  kettle-drum  stroke 
caused  a  shower  of  small  coin  to  scatter  itself  over  the  entire 
orchestra. 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION  26 1 

ceding  their  notes,  which  are  usually  written  out 
in  their  music  to  give  them  their  cue.  Thus  if 
the  conductor  neglects  to  give  notice,  it  may 
often  happen  that  the  drum  does  not  come  in  at 
all.  There  is  a  tradition  that  Richter's  orches- 
tra, in  Vienna,  possessed  a  kettle-drummer  who 
could  count  automatically,  even  in  the  longest 
passages,  and  who  would  go  out  between  his 
notes  to  obtain  refreshment,  always  returning  at 
the  proper  time.  But  this  faculty  is  decidedly 
unusual,  to  say  the  least. 

Passages  for  the  kettle-drum  alone  are  of  neces- 
sity short,  even  in  those  works  where  it  is  used 
most.  There  is  no  absolute  solo  repertoire  for 
the  instrument,  but  a  concerto  for  kettle-drum 
has  been  composed.  This  has  been  played  by 
the  English  drummer  Gordon  Cleather,  who  sat 
in  front  of  the  orchestra  while  performing  it  and 
pounded  out  his  phrases  on  no  less  than  six 
different  drums. 

The  bass  drum,  sometimes  called  for  in  the 
orchestra,  is  in  no  way  different  from  the  form 
so  familiar  in  military  bands.  It  differs  from  the 
kettle-drum  in  having  no  real  pitch,  giving  only 
a  deep  and  indefinite  sound  when  struck.  Its 
chief  use  is  merely  in  a  rhythmic  capacity.      Its 


262 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


notation  is  usually  in  the  bass  clef,  on  any  degree 
of  the  scale.  Its  strokes  are  almost  always 
designated  by  C,  but  composers  have  used  other 
notes,  and  may  of  course  choose  any  one  they 
please.  It  is  customary  to  give  the  bass 
drum  a  staff  of  its  own,  but  in  many  modern 
works  it  is  written  on  a  single  hne  to  save  room. 


BASS   DRUM 


The  bass  drum  was  formerly  played  with  two 
sticks,  a  small  and  a  large  one.  Besides  the 
ordinary  strokes,  it  can  be  made  to  produce  a 
roll,  or  trill.  In  France  a  special  stick  is  often 
employed  for  this  purpose  ;  it  is  called  the  mail- 
loche,  and  is  provided  with  a  knob  at  each  end, 
being  held  in  the  middle  by  the  player.  Usually 
the  roll  is  performed  by  kettle-drum  sticks,  which 
give   a  better  effect.      The   bass  drum  was  first 


INSTRUMENTS   OF  PERCUSSION 


263 


introduced  into  the  orchestra  by  Gluck,  in  the 
finale  of  his  "  Iphigenie  en  Auhde."  It  is  usu- 
ally combined  with  the  cymbals. 

The  ordinary  military  drum,  known  also  under 
the  names  of  side-drum  or  snare-drum,  can  be 
fittingly  used  in  any  work  that  is  at  all   martial 


SIDE-  DRUM 


in  character.  It  can  give  either  single  taps  or 
long  rolls.  Its  notation  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
bass  drum,  though  sometimes  the  G  clef  is  used 
for  it.  A  crescendo  passage  can  be  worked  up 
with  excellent  effect  by  means  of  the  snare-drum, 
as  for  example  the  inspiring  scene  of  the  bene- 
diction of  the  poniards  in  the  fourth  act  of 
Meyerbeer's    "  Huguenots."       Berlioz,    in     his 


264  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

"  Damnation  de  Faust,"  pictures  the  soldiers 
returning  to  camp  at  evening  by  means  of  the 
"  tattoo."  A  pecuHarly  dull  and  rattling  sound 
can  be  obtained  by  relaxing  the  cords  that 
tighten  the  drum-head,  —  a  proceeding  indicated 
by  the  words  schlaff  gespannt  in  German  and 
relachee  in  French.  Wagner  has  called  for  this 
effect  in  his  "  Ride  of  the  Valkyries." 

Less  important  is  the  tambourine,  which  is 
nothing  but  an  extremely  flattened  drum  open  at 
one  end.  It  is  provided  with  jingling  metal 
plates  which  add  to  the  noise  whenever  it  is 
struck.  The  performer  may  vary  the  effect  by 
rubbing  it  with  his  thumb.  The  tambourine 
usually  appears  in  Spanish  or  gipsy  music,  but 
Berlioz  has  allowed  it  to  enter  the  symphonic 
score  in  his  Childe  Harold  Symphony  and 
Roman  Carnival   Overture. 

Among  instruments  producing  definite  pitch 
are  found  the  various  bells  sometimes  called  for 
in  the  orchestra.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  tune 
these  to  the  proper  pitch,  and  to  use  them 
effectively.  Two  bells  are  required  in  Bach's 
cantata  "  Schlage  doch,  gewiinschte  Stunde." 
Berlioz  calls  for  two  in  the  finale  of  his  Sym- 
phonic   Fantastique.       Tschaikowsky     employs 


instrUaMents  of  percussion  265 

them  to  picture  the  rejoicing  of  the  victorious 
Russians  in  his  "  1812  "  overture,  a  work  com- 
posed for  an  outdoor  celebration,  and  first 
performed  with  real  bells  sounding  from  a 
newly  dedicated  cathedral.  On  the  operatic 
stage,  bells  are  frequently  used.  Meyerbeer,  in 
the  "  Huguenots,"  employed  one  to  picture  the 
tocsin  of  St.  Germain  giving  the  signal  for 
the  St.  Bartholomew  massacre.  Verdi  introduced 
a  funeral  bell  into  the  Miserere  of  his  "  Trova- 
tore."  Wagner  wrote  an  attractive  four-noted 
bell  figure  in  his  "  Parsifal,"  the  tones  being 
produced  from  heavy  steel  bars.  Long  steel 
tubes  are  sometimes  used  for  orchestral  bells  in 
America,  with   excellent  effect. 

The  glockenspiel,  or  carillon  in  French,  is  a 
set  of  flat  steel  plates  which  give  a  sweet,  bell- 
like tone  when  struck  with  a  mallet.  Their 
sound  is  not  unlike  that  produced  by  striking 
a  cut-glass  goblet.  Although  a  member  of  the 
percussion  group,  this  instrument  differs  from 
the  others  in  being  able  to  give  definite  melodies. 
Mozart  has  used  its  tinkling  tones  in  his  "  Magic 
Flute,"  and  Wagner  has  employed  them  in  the 
delicate  tracery  of  the  slumber  scene  in  "  Die 
Walkiire,"    also    at    the    entrance    of    the     toy-- 


266  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

makers'  guild  in  "  Die  Meistersinger."  The 
usual  compass  of  the  glockenspiel  is  a  little 
over  two  octaves,  beginning  with  middle  C  on 
the  staff,  but  sounding  an  octave  higher  than 
written. 

Resembling    the   glockenspiel    in    shape,    but 


GLOCKENSPIEL 


with  bars  of  wood  instead  of  steel  plates,  is  the 
xylophone.  The  tone  of  the  latter  instrument 
can  hardly  be  called  musical,  and  except  for  the 
passage  given  to  it  by  St.  Saens  in  his  "  Danse 
Macabre,"  it  has  no  legitimate  place  in  orchestral 
music.  Made  of  similar  material  are  the  cas- 
tagnettes,  which  are  small  bits  of  ebony  or  box- 
wood clicked  together  by  the  hand.     They,  like 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION 


267 


the  tambourines,  are  much  used  in  Spanish  or 
gipsy  music,  and  add  their  rhythmical  effect  to 
tropical  dances.  They  find  excellent  employ- 
ment in  Bizet's  beautiful  opera  of  "  Carmen." 

Cymbals  are  of  Oriental  origin,  coming  from 
Arabian  or  Turkish  sources.  They  are  a  pair 
of  round  metallic  plates,  made  of  a  mixture  of 
copper  and  tin,  and  clashed  together  by  the 
performer.      Usually  they  are  played  by  the  bass 


ZYLOPHOXE 


drummer,  with  one  plate  fastened  on  the  drum, 
but  a  better  tone  results  if  they  can  be  held 
entirely  in  the  hands  and  struck  slant-wise 
against  one  another.  Their  notes  are  often 
written  with  those  of  the  bass  drum,  a  double 
stem  indicating  the  use  of  both  instruments. 
The  loud  tones  of  the  cymbals,  even  when 
quickly  damped  for  the  staccato,  give  an  ex- 
cellent suggestion  of  combat.  Thev  are  also 
useful  in  scenes  of  wild  revelry.      Wagner  uses 


268 


ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 


CASTAGNETTES 


them  for   this  purpose  in   the  Venus  scenes   of 
"  Tannhauser,"    where   he   has    produced   also  a 

mysterious  tremolo  by  hav- 
ing them  rattled  together 
softly.  He  has  also  called 
for  a  roll,  to  be  played  on 
one  cymbal  with  a  pair  of 
drumsticks.  Another  of 
his  effects  is  a  single 
stroke  on  a  hanging  cym- 
bal, giving  the  impression 
of  a  softened  gong.  Berlioz 
has  also  used  this  method 
to  produce  the  final  note  of  his  Symphonic 
Fantastique.  The  cymbals  give  no  definite  pitch, 
as  irregular  vibra- 
tions are  so  prom- 
inent that  they 
drown  the  funda- 
mental tone. 

Even  the  gong, 
or  tam-tam,  may 
play  its  part  in 
orchestral    scores. 

This  well-known   instrument,  or  perhaps  imple- 
ment, does  not  produce  a  single  note,  but  gives 


CYMBALS 


INSTRUMENTS  OF  PERCUSSION 


269 


a  mixture  of  "  by-tones  "  like  those  produced  by 
the  cymbals.  It  may  be  legitimately  employed 
to  picture  any  catastrophe.  The  use  of  the 
gong  in  soft  effects  is  a  skilful  touch  also.  Such 
piano  strokes  are  to  be  found  in  Meyerbeer's 
"  Robert  le  Diable,"  just  before  the  rising  of  the 


TRIANGLE 


nuns,  and  in  Rossini's  "  Semiramide,"  when  the 
tomb  of  Ninus  opens  to  allow  the  ghost  of  that 
monarch  to  issue  forth. 

The  triangle  is  a  small  steel  bar  bent  into  a 
three-sided  figure,  held  suspended  on  a  string 
and  struck  by  a  tiny  steel  rod.  It  has  no  definite 
tone,  and   is   used    merely   for   rhythmic  effects. 


2/0  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

If  is  found  in  Haydn's  Military  Symphony, 
Beethoven's  ninth,  and  Schumann's  first,  but  its 
proper  place  is  in  the  lighter  sorts  of  orchestral 
music.  Weber  has  used  it  in  imparting  gipsy 
colour  to  his  opera  of  "  Preciosa."  Probably  its 
most  noted  employment  is  in  Liszt's  piano  con- 
certo in  E-flat,  where  it  is  actually  used  in  a 
solo  passage,  to  announce  the  rhythm  of  the 
principal  theme. 


CHAPTER   XII. 


THE    ORCHESTRA 


All  of  the  instruments  that  have  been  con- 
sidered in  the  previous  chapters,  except  some  of 
the  percussion,  have  been  melodic  in  character. 
They  were  capable  for  the  most  part  of  pro- 
ducing but  one  tone  at  a  time,  and  even  in  the 
stringed  instruments  double-stopping  was  merely 
a  point  of  advanced  technique,  and  not  the  usual 
method  of  expression.  But  there  exist  instru- 
ments that  can  produce  many  notes  simultane- 
ously, forming  chords  and  progressing  in  harmony 
as  well  as  melody.  Such  are  for  instance  the 
piano  and  organ ;  but  greater  than  either  of 
these,  and  capable  of  giving  infinitely  more  varied 
effects,  is  the  orchestra  itself,  taken  as  a  whole. 

Just  as  the  pianist  or  organist  plays  upon  his 

instrument,   so    the    conductor    plays   upon    the 

orchestra.      His  music  is  written  for  him,  in  the 

score ;  he  cannot  improvise,  but  he  can  perform 

a  symphony  or  an  overture  with  as  much  indi- 

271 


2/2  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

viduality  in  the  interpretation  as  if  he  were 
seated  at  the  piano.  The  instruments  are  his 
keyboard,  and  the  players  execute  his  will  just 
as  the  pianist's  fingers  do  in  the  other  case.  He 
may  play  loud  or  soft,  fast  or  slow  ;  he  may  em- 
phasise any  particular  theme  that  he  chooses  ; 
and  he  is  the  one  to  express  the  composer's 
meaning   as   best  he  may,  in  either  case. 

Conducting  in  the  mere  sense  of  keeping  time 
for  vocal  or  instrumental  forces  is  as  old  as  the 
days  of  Greece.  In  the  theatre  of  ancient  times, 
the  duty  of  leading  devolved  upon  the  choregus, 
who  led  his  performers  by  rhythmical  taps  with 
an  iron  shoe.  In  the  middle  ages,  we  find 
Charlemagne,  in  similar  fiishion,  beating  time  by 
tapping  with  a  wooden  staff.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  modern  era,  the  Italian  violinists  kept 
up  the  custom  by  rapping  on  their  instruments 
with  the  bow  whenever  necessary,  and  taking  part 
in  the  music  themselves  during  the  easy  passages. 
The  leaders  of  our  present  small  theatre  orches- 
tras employ  exactly  the  same  procedure  to-day. 

The  use  of  the  baton  did  not  become  common 
until  well  along  in  the  last  century.  The  method 
of  tapping  the  floor  with  a  stick  was  formerly 
very   general,   and   is   held    responsible    for    the 


THE   ORCHESTRA  273 

death  of  Lully  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  That  composer  had  written  a  Te 
Deum  in  honour  of  the  French  king's  recovery 
from  a  serious  illness.  At  its  first  performance 
Lully  himself  conducted,  and  when  he  found  the 
orchestra  growing  a  little  unsteady,  he  made  such 
frantic  flourishes  with  the  cane  which  served  him 
as  baton  that  he  struck  his  foot  violently.  In- 
flammation resulted,  but  he  gave  it  no  attention  ; 
finally  gangrene  set  in,  and  the  amputation  of  his 
leg,  thus  rendered  necessary,  was  the  prime  cause 
of  his  death. 

In  the  time  of  Bach  and  Handel,  the  composer 
usually  conducted  his  works  by  playing  a  harpsi- 
chord or  organ  accompaniment  for  them.  There 
was  no  definite  score  for  any  of  the  works  then 
written.  The  orchestral  parts  were  of  course 
necessary  for  the  performers,  but  only  the  merest 
outline  of  the  work  was  set  before  the  leader, 
who  plaved  his  own  part  from  a  figured  bass. 
Haydn  and  Mozart  were  the  first  of  the  great 
composers  to  write  out  their  orchestral  works 
in  full,  and  with  Haydn  conducting  began  to 
approach  its  present  form. 

Beethoven,  in  spite  of  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  the   instruments,  was   not  at  all  a  great  con- 


274  ORCHESTRAL    INSTRUMENTS 

ductor  in  the  present  sense  of  the  term.  Even 
in  the  prime  of  his  Hfe,  he  was  too  strange  and 
eccentric  in  his  moods  to  make  a  good  leader. 
In  his  later  years,  when  deafness  had  come  upon 
him,  it  seems  strange  that  he  could  conduct  at 
all ;  yet  he  continued  to  lead  the  performances 
of  his  symphonies,  in  spite  of  this  malady.  It  is 
said  that  more  than  once  he  led  his  forces  to  dis- 
aster, until  finally  the  musicians  agreed  to  follow 
the  first  violinist  and  pay  no  attention  to  the 
irregular  motions  of  Beethoven's  conducting- 
stick. 

Spohr  and  Weber  w^ere  both  excellent  con- 
ductors. The  latter,  especially,  brought  this  part 
of  the  musical  art  to  a  high  level,  though  not 
even  he  would  rank  as  a  great  leader  to-day. 
The  art  of  conducting  first  reached  its  present 
standard  with  the  advent  of  Mendelssohn.  Un- 
der his  efficient  guidance  the  Leipsic  Gewandhaus 
orchestra  won  the  high  rank  that  it  occupies  even 
at  the  present  day.  Like  Spohr,  he  won  much 
fame  by  his  leadership  of  the  London  orchestra. 
He  is  described  as  somewhat  of  a  martinet,  but 
he  earned  the  good  will  and  respect  of  the 
players  by  the  thorough  knowledge  that  he  dis- 
played.      His   conducting   was    like    his    music. 


THE    ORCHESTRA 


275 


SliBENTE  SYMPHOME. 

Dem  BfichBgrafen  Morilz  von  Fries  pewidmet . 


Poco  sosleiiato. 


L.vao'  BeethoT<B ,  Op,  9ft  .- 


rinUll.  t»t 


Oboi. 

Clariurtti  In  A. 

Fagotti , 
Conil  tn  A. 

Troiubtr  in  I). 
Tioiiiaitiln  A.E. 

Violiuo  I. 
Violiuo  U. 

Violn. 
\1o1oiimUo. 

CojitiHbasao. 


THE   CLASSICAL   PERIOD 


2/6  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

sunny  and  cheerful,  but  perhaps  not  reaching  the 
real  depths  of  musical  expression.  He  once 
made  the  remark  to  Wagner  that  too  slow  a 
tempo  was  disgusting,  and  that  he  would  rather 
err  on  the  side  of  rapidity.  When  Wagner  came 
to  conduct  the  London  orchestra,  he  found  Men- 
delssohn's style  so  firmly  fixed  there  that  the 
single  rehearsal  before  each  concert  was  not 
always  sufficient  for  the  newcomer  to  alter  the 
traditions. 

What  Mendelssohn  did  in  Germany,  Berlioz 
carried  out  in  France.  He  has  left  on  record 
his  idea  of  a  leader's  duties.  "  The  conductor 
should  see  and  hear,"  he  writes.  "  He  should 
be  active  and  vigorous,  should  know  the  com- 
position, the  nature  and  compass  of  the  instru- 
ments, should  be  able  to  read  the  score,  and 
possess  that  indefinable  attraction  that  forms  an 
invisible  link  between  him  and  those  he  directs. 
.  .  .  They  should  feel  that  he  feels,  c6mpre- 
hends,  and  is  moved  ;  then  his  inward  fire  warms 
them,  his  magnetic  glow  electrifies  them,  his  force 
of  impulse  excites  them  ;  he  throws  around  them 
the  vital  irradiations  of  musical  art.  If  he  be 
inert  and  frozen,  on  the  contrary,  he  paralyses 
all  about  him." 


THE    ORCHESTRA  277 

It  seems  strange  that  Berlioz,  in  spite  of  his 
being  such  a  good  conductor,  should  make  such 
inordinate  calls  for  wholesale  effects  in  his  com- 
positions. Experience  must  have  shown  him 
that  a  small  band  can  be  guided  with  more  cer- 
tainty than  a  large  one,  yet  in  his  suggestion  for 
a  permanent  festival  organisation  in  Paris  he  in- 
cluded four  hundred  and  sixty-seven  instrumen- 
talists and  three  hundred  and  sixty  singers.  In 
one  actual  performance  he  had  no  less  than 
twelve  hundred  people  under  his  direction.  He 
employed  four  chorus-masters,  one  at  each  cor- 
ner of  the  vocal  forces,  and  two  sub-conductors, 
one  for  the  wind-instruments  and  one  for  the 
instruments  of  percussion  ;  all  of  these  subordi- 
nates looking  toward  him  and  taking  their  time 
from  him. 

The  only  good  result  obtained  by  such  large 
numbers  is  a  full  volume  of  tone.  But  volume 
of  tone  is  not  the  only  point,  nor  even  the  most 
important,  upon  which  a  conductor  should  insist. 
Accuracy  in  shading  is  a  prime  necessity.  So  is 
precision  in  playing,  unity  in  attacking  the  notes, 
especially  at  the  entrance  of  any  instrument,  and 
all  the  other  details  that  are  included  in  the  term 
ensemble.       These    results    cannot    be    properly 


2/8  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

attained  in  a  monster  orchestra,  as  any  undue 
increase  in  the  forces  at  once  interferes  with 
delicacy  in  playing.  Modern  musicians  hold 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  an  orches- 
tra of  a  hundred  in  a  hall  seating  about  a  thou- 
sand. Wagner's  Bayreuth  theatre,  which  has 
room  for  about  twelve  hundred,  and  employs 
a  hundred  and  sixteen  players  concealed  beneath 
the  stage,  comes  near  to  fulfilling  these  ideal 
conditions. 

Wagner  himself  was  a  most  gifted  conductor. 
His  remarkable  musical  sense  afforded  him  a 
complete  insight  into  every  composition  that 
he  performed,  and  it  was  his  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  works  of  Auber,  Bellini,  and  others 
that  enabled  him  to  see  their  triviality  and  seek 
to  express  something  deeper  in  his  own  music. 
He  was  not  the  first  to  conduct  without  a  score, 
but  he  often  adopted  this  procedure  with  Beetho- 
ven's works.  Conducting  from  memory  is  not 
such  a  tremendous  feat  as  it  might  seem  to  the 
uninitiated ;  for  the  leader  may  rely  upon  his 
men  to  a  great  extent,  and  need  remember  only 
a  general  outline  of  the  piece,  with  the  places 
where  he  must  give  his  signals  for  the  different 
instruments  to  come  in.      But  in  Wagner's  case 


THE   ORCHESTRA  279 

the  memorisation  was  complete.  When  he  first 
came  to  his  orchestra  without  a  score,  prepared 
to  play  Beethoven's  ninth  symphony,  some  of  the 
musicians  were  disposed  to  ridicule  his  action  as 
bravado;  but  he  challenged  any  one  of  them  to 
write  a  few  measures  of  any  particular  part,  and 
offered  to  prove  his  absolute  knowledge  of  the 
work  by  continuing  this  part  when  the  player 
had  ceased.  Such  thorough  musical  understand- 
ing is  given  only  to  a  few  gifted  geniuses ;  but  it 
makes  an  invaluable  conductor. 

Von  Billow,  one  of  the  greatest  of  drill- 
masters,  went  even  farther,  and  demanded  that 
the  performers  of  his  Meiningen  orchestra  also 
should  memorise  their  parts.  He  was  endowed 
with  an  absolute  passion  for  accuracy,  and  gave 
the  most  careful  attention  to  phrasing,  shading, 
and  technique.  The  members  of  his  orchestra 
became  so  efficient  that  on  one  occasion,  when  he 
was  unavoidably  late,  they  started  in  to  play  the 
first  number  of  the  program,  the  "  Tannhauser  " 
overture,  without  any  leader,  and  were  finishing 
it  successfully  by  the  time  he  appeared. 

In  spite  of  the  cases  of  Mendelssohn,  Wagner, 
and  Berlioz,  it  is  generally  true  that  composers 
make  bad  conductors.     Unless  they  are  endowed 


280  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

with  unusual  breadth  of  character,  they  are  apt 
to  become  one-sided  and  favour  their  own  espe- 
cial style  of  compositions.  Spohr  was  a  case  in 
point,  despite  the  high  rank  that  he  justly 
earned ;  and  in  his  autobiography  he  has  criti- 
cised Beethoven's  symphonies  as  dull  and  unin- 
spired. Another  trouble  with  the  composer  lies 
in  the  fact  that  he  is  apt  to  forget  his  duties 
to  some  extent  in  listening  dreamily  to  the  music. 
This  was  especially  true  of  Schumann.  Liszt 
was  also  an  instance  of  the  fact  that  creative 
excellence  does  not  imply  skill  in  interpretation* 
Not  even  to-day  given  full  credit  for  the  wealth 
and  beauty  of  musical  thoughts  in  his  composi- 
tions, he  was  never  truly  successful  as  an  orches- 
tral leader.  Richter,  on  the  other  hand,  became 
famous  in  conducting.  It  is  related  of  him  that 
on  the  day  when  he  finally  decided  to  devote 
himself  to  this  art,  he  burned  all  his  composi- 
tions and  made  a  cup  of  coffee  over  the  fire, — 
a  costly  beverage,  indeed. 

Among  modern  French  conductors,  Lamou- 
reux  was  worthy  of  the  highest  rank.  He  won 
his  greatest  triumphs  in  Paris,  where  he  con- 
ducted the  opera  for  a  time,  and  established  the 
"  Concerts  Lamoureux."      Justly  celebrated  also 


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SCORING    WITH    BRASSES   AND    PERCUSSION    AT   TOP 


282  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

was  Colonne,  who  brought  out  many  of  the 
grand  works  of  BerHoz,  and  a  number  of  famous 
modern  German  compositions.  In  Germany, 
there  has  arisen  a  set  of  great  Wagnerian  con- 
ductors, among  whom  were  Levi,  now  dead, 
Mottl,  who  has  made  Karlsruhe  renowned  for 
its  musical  excellence,  and  last,  but  by  no  means 
least,  Anton  Seidl,  whose  labours  in  the  Wag- 
nerian cause  are  applauded  by  an  admiring  public 
even  after  his  death. 

Richard  Strauss  is  now  ranked  among  the  few 
great  living  conductors.  His  prodigious  skill  in 
composition  has  not  prevented  him  from  winning 
remarkable  triumphs  at  the  Berlin  Royal  Opera. 
Weingartner,  leader  of  the  Kaim  concerts  in 
Munich,  is  also  in  the  foremost  rank,  of  living 
conductors.  Nikisch,  known  in  America  through 
his  connection  with  the  Boston  Symphony  Or- 
chestra, is  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  leaders,  and 
conducts  the  most  intricate  orchestral  scores  with- 
out notes.  He  is  at  present  conductor  of  the 
Leipsic  Gewandhaus  orchestra  and  the  Philhar- 
monic concerts  in  Berlin.  Another  famous  name 
is  that  of  Mahler,  now  director  of  the  Imperial 
Opera  in  Vienna.  His  compositions  are  the 
only  ones  of  the  present,  except  those  of  Hau- 


THEOnOKE    THOMAS. 


THE    ORCHESTRA  283 

segger,  which  are  deemed  worthy  of  comparison 
with  the  works  of  Richard  Strauss. 

Among  American  conductors,  Theodore 
Thomas  deserves  the  highest  praise,  not  only 
for  his  gifts  as  a  leader,  but  for  his  unswerving 
fidelity  to  true  art  and  his  successful  work  in 
educating  public  taste.  He  conducts  with  the 
utmost  animation  and  vigour.  Wilhelm  Gericke, 
leader  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  excels 
in  effects  of  clearness  and  delicacy,  while  Emil 
Paur,  who  recently  left  the  New  York  Philhar- 
monic Orchestra  to  return  to  Germany,  inclines 
to  broader  and  more  spirited  effects. 

The  great  orchestras  of  the  world  are  none 
too  numerous.  That  in  Boston  must  surely  be 
accorded  high  rank  among  them,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  its  string  band ;  while  the  New  York  and 
Chicago  organisations  are  little  behind  it.'  Among 
the  many  European  orchestras,  the  foremost  are 
the  Leipsic  Gewandhaus,  the  Berlin  Philharmonic, 
and  the  Vienna  Philharmonic.  The  Conservatoire 
concerts  in  Paris  are  also  justly  celebrated.  In 
the  days  of  Von  Biilow,  the  Meiningen  orchestra 
was  one  of  the  few  truly  great  bands. 

'  Other  permanent  American  orchestras  exist  in  Philadelphia, 
Washington,  Pittsburg,  and  Cincinnati. 


284  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

The  orchestra  may  be  regarded  as  an  instru- 
ment from  the  composer's  point  of  view,  as  well 
as  from  that  of  the  conductor.  He  writes  for  it 
with  just  as  definite  musical  intentions  as  a  piano 
composer  writes  a  sonata  or  a  nocturne.  In  the 
orchestra,  however,  the  labour  of  writing  is  vastly 
increased,  for  each  instrument  demands  a  sepa- 
rate staff.  If  the -piano  composer  had  to  write 
on  a  different  staff  for  each  finger,  his  task  would 
become  much  harder  than  it  now  is.  But  the 
orchestral  writer  must  express  his  thoughts  on 
many  more  than  ten  staffs,  as  the  number  of 
instruments  now  employed  is  much  larger  than 
it  was  formerly.  Even  in  Beethoven's  sympho- 
nies, for  example,  at  least  twelve  staffs  are  needed 
in  the  score,  —  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets,  horns, 
trumpets,  bassoons,  kettle-drum,  first  and  second 
violins,  violas,  'cellos,  and  contrabasses.  At  pres- 
ent we  may  have  also  piccolo,  English  horn,  bass 
clarinet,  contrabassoon,  trombones,  tuba,  contra- 
bass tuba,  and  many  instruments  of  percussion. 
When  it  is  also  considered  that  some  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  horns,  are  often  grouped  for 
two  staffs  instead  of  one,  it  will  readily  be  seen 
that  the  composer  of  the  present  has  no  easy  task 
in  putting  his  thoughts  on  paper. 


THE    ORCHESTRA 


285 


DIE  MEiSTERSIlVGER  VON  NURNBERG. 


Vorspleh 


niCBARD  WAr.KEH. 


Sdir  m.'isily  hrwegl. 


C0WTn*BA5$f 

A   MODBRN    SCORE 


286  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Beethoven  wrote  and  rewrote  his  music,  per- 
fecting and  polishing  it  until  it  reached  its  final 
flawless  state.  As  instances  of  more  rapid  com- 
position, Handel  composed  his  "  Messiah  "  in 
twenty-three  days,  and  his  opera  "  Rinaldo " 
in  just  two  weeks ;  Mozart  wrote  the  overture 
to  "  Don  Giovanni  "  in  one  night;  Mendelssohn 
had  only  two  days  in  which  to  write  his  "  Ruy 
Bias  "  overture,  in  order  to  have  it  ready  for  the 
concert  at  which  it  was  to  be  performed ;  and 
Rossini  completed  the  whole  of  his  "  Barber  of 
Seville "  in  fifteen  days.  This  speed  is  usually 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  great  composers,  those 
who  are  naturally  gifted,  like  Mozart,  Mendels- 
sohn, or  Wagner,  have  the  music  entirely  worked 
out  in  their  heads  before  they  put  pen  to  paper. 
The  mere  writing,  in  such  cases,  is  nothing  but  a 
simple  copying  down  of  ideas  already  formed. 

The  abstract  musical  thought  exists  in  the 
composer's  brain,  irrespective  of  any  instrument. 
It  is  like  the  composition,  the  drawing  of  a 
picture.  Before  either  musician  or  artist  can 
give  his  work  to  the  world,  he  must  choose 
and  blend  his  colours  with  due  regard  to  the 
standards  of  his  art  and  his  own  ideas  of  beauty. 
What  these  colours  are  for  the  composer,  it  has 


/ 


THE    ORCHESTRA  28/ 

been  the  object  of  this  book  to  show.      Briefly 
summed  up,  they  are  as  follows  : 

Vidin.  —  All  emotions. 

Viola.  —  Brooding  melancholy  and  gloom. 

Violoncello.  —  All  emotions.  Masculine  in  ef- 
fect where  violin  is  feminine. 

Contrabass.  —  Ponderous,  portentous,  or  also 
comical. 

Harp.  —  Ecstatic,  celestial  effects. 

Flute.  —  Gently  melancholy  (lower  register), 
or  brilliant  (upper  register). 

Piccolo.  —  Wild,  frenzied  gaiety.  Used  in 
infernal  effects. 

Oboe.  —  Grief  and  pathos  ;  artless  innocence  ; 
rustic  gaiety. 

English  horn.  —  Broadly  melancholy  ;  imitates 
shepherd's  pipe. 

Bassoon.  —  Earnest  and  sombre  (lower  regis- 
ter), or  grotesquely  comical. 

Contr  abas  soon.  —  Deep,  impressive,  organ-like. 

Clarinet.  —  Eloquent  and  tender,  or  spectral 
(lower  register). 

Bass  Clarinet.  —  Sombre. 

Horn.  —  Romantic,  as  in  forest  scenes  or  hunt- 
ing calls,  or  evil  and  repulsive  when  its  tones  are 
muted. 


288  ORCHESTRAL   INSTRUMENTS 

Trumpet.  —  Martial  and  bold. 

Trombone.  —  Solemn,  or  menacing. 

Tubas.  —  Brutal  and  powerful. 

Kettle-drums.  —  Explosive  effects,  or  those  of 
anxiety  and  suspense. 

Other  Drums.  —  Military  effects. 

Cymbals.  —  Clash  of  battle,  or  festivity. 

Glockenspiel.  —  Tinkling  sweetness. 

Tambourine  and  Triangle.  —  Spanish  or  gipsy 
effects. 

With  these  colours  is  produced  all  the  beauty 
of  orchestral  effect  that  has  given  modern  music 
its  richness  and  glory.  They  do  not  and  cannot 
atone  for  any  lack  of  definite  musical  ideas  on 
the  composer's  part.  But  if  the  themes  them- 
selves be  worthy,  these  varied  instrumental  hues 
enable  him  to  weave  his  thoughts  into  a  rich  web 
of  sound  that  seems  actually  to  glow  upon  the  ear, 
with  all  the  passionate  warmth  that  the  colours 
of  a  Titian  appeal  to  the  eye. 

THE    END. 


APPENDIX 

THE    ACOUSTICS    OF    TUBES 

When  any  stretched  string  is  vibrating,  —  that 
of  a  violin,  for  example,  —  the  material  seems  to 
sway  from  side  to  side.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  impulse  that  makes  it  move  does  not  act  in 
that  direction,  but  travels  along  the  string  from 
one  end  to  another.  This  may  be  seen  from  the 
example  given  in  Chapter  III.,  where  a  simple 
jerk  of  a  long  hanging  rope  was  mentioned  as 
travelling  up  the  rope,  while  the  actual  strands 
were  moved  sidewise.  Such  a  jerk  would  travel 
up  to  the  top  of  the  rope,  where  the  strands, 
after  swinging  to  one  side,  would  be  pulled  back 
by  the  fixed  point  of  support,  and  the  direction 
of  the  swing  reversed.  It  would  then  travel 
down  the  rope,  to  its  lowest  point,  where  a 
second  jerk  like  the  first  would  cause  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  whole. 

In    a    somewhat    similar    way,   each    vibration 

of  air  will  travel  to  and  fro  along  a  tube.     The 

289 


290  APPENDIX 

air  particles  are  compressed  at  the  mouthpiece, 
by  a  vibration  of  the  reed  or  the  player's  lips. 
This  compression  then  travels  through  the  tube, 
until  it  reaches  the  end.  It  then  dissipates  itself 
into  the  outer  air,  and  by  this  very  scattering 
causes  a  reaction  to  travel  back  from  the  end 
of  the  tube  to  the  mouthpiece.  At  the  opening 
in  the  mouthpiece,  this  expansion  is  again  trans- 
formed into  a  compression,  and  by  that  time  a 
second  vibration  of  the  material  causing  the 
sound  is  ready  to  reenforce  this  compression 
with  another.  The  successive  compressions, 
therefore,  proceed  into  the  outer  air  at  a  dis- 
tance from  one  another  equal  to  twice  the  length 
of  the  tube.  So  if  a  tube  is  two  feet  long,  the 
compressions  will  be  four  feet  apart,  which  is  the 
same  as  saying  that  the  wave-length  is  four  feet. 
As  sound  travels  about  1,120  feet  a  second,  there 
will  in  consequence  be  280  such  waves  in  the 
distance  travelled  a  second,  or  280  vibration- 
blows  per  second  upon  the  ear  of  a  stationary 
auditor.  This  tone  is  about  the  same  in  pitch 
as  middle  C  on  the  piano,  and  would  be  the 
lowest  note  of  a  flute  or  oboe  two  feet  long. 

The  case  of  the  air-particles  in  such  a  tube  is 
not  unlike  that  of  a  train  of  cars  coupled  loosely. 


APPENDIX  291 

Suppose  that  an  engine,  also  attached  loosely, 
gives  alternate  pulls  and  pushes  to  the  train. 
The  first  push  travels  from  car  to  car,  until  the 
last  one  is  reached.  This  one,  tending  to  fly  off, 
is  held  back  by  its  neighbour,  upon  which  it 
therefore  exerts  a  pull.  Meanwhile  the  engine 
has  given  a  pull  at  its  end.  These  two  pulls 
travel  along  the  train  in  reverse  directions. 
When  the  pull  given  by  the  last  car  reaches 
the  engine,  it  finds  the  engine  ready  to  aid  it 
in  its  pulling  tendency  by  giving  the  second 
push.  Meanwhile  the  pull  from  the  engine  has 
reached  the  last  car,  and  the  last  car  is  drawn  in 
by  it,  and  caused  to  exert  a  push  on  its  next 
neighbour.  Thus  there  is  an  alternation  of 
pulls  and  pushes  crossing  each  other  in  the 
centre  of  the  train,  and  being  transformed  from 
one  thing  into  the  other  at  each  end.  Each 
impulse,  therefore,  travels  twice  the  length  of 
the  train  (down  and  back)  before  being  reen- 
forced  by  the  engine. 

Suppose  now  that  the  engine  is  too  big  and 
unwieldy  to  change  quickly  from  pushing  to  pull- 
ing. Its  first  push  travels  up  the  train,  and 
comes  back  as  a  pull.  When  this  pull  reaches 
the  engine,  the  engine  itself  is  only  ready  to  exert 


292  APPENDIX 

its  first  pull.  Engine  and  car,  both  trying  to  pull 
in  opposite  directions,  will  be  drawn  toward  one 
another,  and  the  car,  in  moving  toward  the  en- 
gine, exerts  a  pull  on  the  second  car,  which  trav- 
els down  the  train  again.  This  pull  is  transformed 
into  a  push  by  the  last  car,  and  sent  back  toward 
the  engine.  It  tends  to  push  the  engine,  but  the 
engine  itself  is  now  ready  to  push,  and  being 
heavy  it  overpowers  the  push  of  the  car.  Thus 
in  one  case  the  impulse  of  the  engine  travelled 
down  and  back  once  before  being  reenforced,  and 
found  the  engine  always  ready  to  reenforce  it.  In 
the  other  case  the  impulse  had  to  travel  down 
and  back  twice  before  resuming  its  first  shape  for 
the  second  time,  and  always  found  the  engine  in 
opposition  to  it. 

This  second  case  is  what  happens  with  the 
clarinet.  As  the  reed  is  large,  it  has  sufficient 
force  to  overcome  or  "govern"  the  air-column 
in  the  tube,  while  the  smaller  oboe  or  bassoon 
reed  cannot  do  this.  The  result  is  that  in  the  case 
of  the  clarinet  the  vibrations  must  travel  down  the 
tube  and  back  twice,  or  four  times  its  length,  before 
resuming  their  original  condition.  There  is  first 
a  compression  travelling  from  the  reed  to  the  end 
of  the  tube.      Returning  as  a  rarefaction,  it  is  not 


APPENDIX  293 

transformed  this  time,  as  it  would  have  been  in  a 
flute  or  oboe,  but  is  sent  on  its  second  trip  down 
the  tube  as  a  rarefaction,  to  be  changed  and  sent 
back  up  the  tube  for  the  second  time,  now  at  last 
in  the  form  of  a  condensation.  The  reed,  now 
ready  for  its  second  vibration,  augments  this  con- 
densation and  sends  it  down  the  tube.  This 
doubHng  of  the  wave-length  allows  only  half  as 
many  such  waves  or  vibrations  to  fit  into  the 
1,120  feet  that  sound  travels  per  second,  so  a 
clarinet  will  have  only  half  as  many  vibrations  as 
a  flute  or  oboe  of  the  same  size,  and  in  conse- 
quence will  sound  an  octave  lower  in  pitch. 


INDEX 


Alcibiades,  129. 

Amati,  60. 

Arabian  Instruments,  29,  30. 

Archiliuto,  48. 

Arco  Saltando,  69,  91. 

Arpeggio,  115. 

Asor,  31. 

Auber,  55,  161,  224,  256,  278. 

Aulos,  128. 

Bach,  C.  P.  E.,  50. 

Bach,  J.  C,  195. 

Bach,  John  Sebastian,  46,  47,  48, 
49,  50,  63,  loi,  119,  138, 
158,  162,  163,  166,  172,  173, 
211,  225,  235,  240,  264,  273. 

Bagpipe,  40. 

Baillot,  75,  77. 

Barbella,  75. 

Bass  Clarinet,  52,  199,  203-205. 

Bass  Drum,  57,  261,  262. 

Bass  Trombone,  241. 

Bass  Trumpet,  229. 

Bass  Tuba,  see  Tuba. 

Basset  Horn,  52,  57,  201-203. 

Basson  Quinte,  182. 

Bassoon,  48,  49,  51,  52,  57,  144, 
155,  169-182. 

Beethoven,  52,  53,  67,82,  86,  90, 
91,  92,  96,  101-105,  119, 
145,  146,  151,  159,  160,  166, 
172,  173,  177.  184,  197,  201, 
203,  214,  220,  226,  243,  251, 
255,  256,  270,  273,  274,  286. 


Bellini,  278. 

Bells,  264. 

Berlioz,  56,  57,  87,  96,  100,  103, 
120,  147,  152,  162,  168,  181, 
201,  214,  218,  231,  236,  244, 
256,  257,  263,  264,  268,  276, 
277,  279. 

Besson,  205. 

Billington,  Mrs.,  228. 

Bizet,  207,  267. 

Boccherini,  93. 

Boehm,  139-141,  187. 

Boieldieu,  199. 

Bombardon,  246. 

Bottesini,  99,  100. 

Brahms,  54,  82,  87,  120,  193. 

Brass  Instruments,  208. 

Broken  Music,  46. 

Bruch,  82. 

Bumey,  iio,  138. 

By-Tones,  269. 

Cambert,  172. 

Carillon,  265. 

Castagnettes,  266. 

'Cello,  see  Violoncello. 

Chalameaux,  49. 

Chalumeau  Register,  189,  193. 

Chaucer,  164. 

Che,  25. 

Cheng,  26. 

Cherubini,  52,  54,  93,    161,   180, 

201. 
Chinese  Instruments,  23-27. 


295 


296 


INDEX 


Chopin,  146. 

Choregus,  272. 

Clarinet,   51,  52,    57,  120,  186- 

201,  208. 
Clarinet  Transpositions,  190. 
Cleather,  261. 
Clefs,  84. 
Coir  Legno,  70. 
Colonne,  282. 
Con  Sordino,  71,  91. 
Conducting,  49,  272-283. 
Contrabass,  49,  52,  57,  94-105. 
Contrabassoon,  56,  57,  155,  182- 

184. 
Corelli,  76,  93. 
Cornet,  230-232. 
Cometto,  42,  48,  251. 
Cowen,  120,  167. 
Cymbals,  52,  57,  267,  268. 

David,  81,  239. 

Denner,  186. 

De  Beriot,  81. 

Der    Freischutz,    92,    100,    152, 

215. 
Djivan  Shah,  28. 
Double  Stopping,  68,  90,  97. 
Double  Tongueing,  143. 
Dragonetti,  99. 
Drum,  52,  263. 
Drums,  Savage,  20. 
Dulcimer,  29,  30. 
Duport,  93. 
Dvorak,  168. 

Egyptian  Instruments,  30. 
Eistedfodds,  108. 
Embouchure,  212. 
English  Horn,  52,  57,  144,  155, 

163-168. 
Ensemble,  iTJ. 
Erard,  iii,  123. 
Euphonium,  247. 

Farinelli,  228. 
Flageolet,  41,  152.  153- 
Flute,  41,  47,  49,  51,  52,  57,  120, 
127-149,  187,  188,  208. 


Flute,  Boehm,  141. 
Flute-i-bec,  47,  49,  127,  138. 
Flutes,  Bone,  16. 
Flutes,  Prehistoric,  15. 
Flutes,  Reed,  16. 
Flutes,  Savage,  17. 
Flutes,  Transposing,  148. 
Frederick  the  Great,  137,  138. 

Gade,  148. 
Gemiinder,  61. 
Gericke,  Wilhelm,  283. 
Gevaert,  114,  206. 
Gigue,  40,  41. 
Cittern,  40,  41. 
Glissando,  71,  91,  117. 
Glockenspiel,  265. 
Gluck,  86,   loi.    III,    144,    151, 
160,  196,  211,  236,  242,  263. 
Gong,  268. 
Gongs,  Savage,  19. 
Gossec,  211. 
Gounod,  120,  178,  217. 
Grecian  Instruments,  32-34. 
Gretry,  86,  216. 
Guarnerius,  60. 
Guitar,  107,  122-124. 
Guitars,  Savage,  20. 

Handel,  48,  49,  50,  no,  119,  130, 

138,  145.  151.  158,  159.  «62, 
172,  184,  189,  196,  197,  211, 
225,  226,  227,  235,  251,  273, 
286. 

Harmonics,  56,  65,  66,  91,  98, 
116,  208,  212. 

Harmonides,  128. 

Harp,  40,  48,  52.  55.  57.  10^ 
122. 

Harp,  Chromatic,  121. 

Harp,  Erard,  112. 

Harp,  Irish,  107. 

Harp,  Welsh,  108. 

Harper,  228. 

Harpsichord,  42,  48,  49,  273. 

Harps,  Savage,  21. 

Hasse,  146. 

Hausegger,  283. 


INDEX 


297 


Haydn,  50,  51,  52,  53,  93,  103, 
119,  147,  151,  159,  163,  166, 
172,  174,  184,  196,  270,  273. 

Hochbrucker,  no. 

Homophones,  118. 

Horn,  48,  49,  51,  52,  54,  57,  120, 
209-220,  233,  244. 

Horn  Transpositions,  213. 

Horns,  Savage,  18. 

Horn-Calls,  210. 

Indian  Instruments,  28. 
Instruments,  Classes  of,  14,  154, 
208,  252. 

Japanese  Instruments,  27. 
Joachim,  81,  125. 
Jongleurs,  39,  40. 

Kalliwoda,  158. 

Kettledrums,  51,  56,  252-261. 

Kin,  25. 

King,  25. 

Kinnor,  31,  106. 

Kithara,  32,  107. 

Koto,  27. 

Kreutzer,  77. 

Kuhlau,  147. 

Lablache,  227. 
Lamia,  130,  131. 
Lamoureux,  280. 
Lanier,  147. 
Leclair,  76. 
Levi,  282. 
Liszt,  270,  280. 
Lituus,  48. 
Lolli,  75. 
Longfellow,  117. 
Lully,  44,  273. 
Lute,  40,  47,  107,  126. 
Lyre,  14,  30,  32,  107. 

Mahler,  282. 
Mandolin,  125. 
Martellato,  69. 
Marine  Trumpet,  41. 
Massenet,  149,  218. 


Mechanical  Drum,  259. 

Mehul,  86,  216. 

Mendelssohn,  52,  55,  82,  86,  93, 
98,  146,  156,  161,  166,  177, 
198,  201,  203,  215,  244,  250, 
251,  256,  260,  274,  276,  279, 
286. 

Menschel,  235. 

Meyerbeer,  55,  87,  97,  120,  151, 
168,  180,  199,  204,  205,  214, 
257,  263,  265,  269. 

Monteverde,  69,  70,  107. 

Mottl,  282. 

Mozart,  51,  52,  53,  85,  86,  99, 
III,  125,  145,  152,  158,  160, 
166,  171,  172,  176,  184,  193, 
196,  197,  199,  203,  220,  226, 
229,  240,  243,  265,  273,  286. 

Muted  Horns,  216. 

Natural  Horn,  209-218. 

Natural  Trumpet,  223. 

Neble,  31. 

Nikisch,  282. 

Nome  of  Kradias,  130,  169. 

Oboe,  49,  51,  52,  57,  144,  154- 

163,  187,  188,  208. 
Oboe  d'Amore,  48,  49,  162. 
Oboe  di  Caccia,  48,  49,  163,  166, 

168. 
Ole  Bull,  68. 

Ophicleide,  245,  249,  250. 
Orchestra,  41,  42,  43,  51,  52,  57, 

245,  271-288. 
Orchestras,  283. 
Orchestral  Colours,  287,  288. 
Orchestral  Scores,  284. 
Organ,  35,  48,  49,  55,  273. 
Organistrum,  40,  41. 

Paganini,  61,  67,  75,  77-81. 
Paine,  John  K.,  181. 
Paur,  Emil,  283. 
Pedal  Clarinet,  205. 
Pedal  Tones,  238. 
Pfund,  259,  260. 
Piccolo,  48,  52,  57,  149-152. 


298 


INDEX 


Pipe,  40. 

Pizzicato,  70,  91,  lOO. 
Position,  72,  237. 
Post-Horn,  220. 
Prastorius,  235. 
Prout,  114,  115. 
Psaltery,  31,  40. 

Quantz,  137,  138,  145. 

Raff,  161,  256. 
Rameau,  46. 
Ravanastron,  28. 
Rebab,  29,  30. 
Rebeck,  41. 
Recorders,  136. 
Reed  Instruments,  154. 
Regals,  40,  41,  42. 
Richter,  261,  280. 
Ritter  Viola,  87. 
Rode,  77. 

Roman  Instruments,  34,  35. 
Rossini,   55,   93,   100,   123,    145, 
163,  178,  199,  215,  269,  286. 
Rote,  40,  41. 
Rubinstein,  87. 

Sackbut,  41,  234. 

Saint  Saens,  74,   103,    120,    159, 

178,  266. 
Samisen,  27. 
Sarrusophone,  184. 
Sax,  187,  199,  205,  238. 
Sax-Horns,  246. 
Saxophones,  205-207. 
Scarlatti,  145,  211. 
Scheidler,  1 19. 
Schott,  244. 
Schubert,   54,  86,    92,   161,    166, 

197,  215,  244. 
Schumann,  irg,    152,    158,    166, 

217,  224,  244,  250,  256,  280. 
Seidl,  282. 
Serpent,  250. 
Servais,  94. 
Shalm,  41. 
Side-Drum,  263. 
Simon,  1 11. 


Sistrum,  30,  32. 
Slide,  234,  239. 
Slide  Trumpet,  228. 
Slide  Trombone,  234-245. 
Spohr,  52,  77,  119,  152,  161,  184, 

199,  257,  274,  280. 
Spontini,  151,  152,  244. 
Stadler,  187. 
Stradivarius,  60. 
Strauss,  Richard,  58,  282,  283. 
Suir  Ponticello,  y^- 
Symphony,  40,  41. 
Synonyms,  1 18. 
Syrinx,  17,  40. 

Tabour,  40,  41. 

Taille,  48. 

Tambourine,  264. 

Tartini,  7  s,,  76,  93,  94. 

Theorbo,  42,  48. 

Thomas,  Ambroise,  181. 

Thomas,  Theodore,  283. 

Tibia,  34,  132. 

Timbrel,  31. 

Torelli,  76. 

Tremolo,  69,  91,  117. 

Triangle,  269. 

Trombone,  233-246. 

Troubadours,  39. 

Trumpet,  41,  42,  44,  48,  49,  51, 

52,  57,  220-229,  233,  244. 
Trumpet  Transpositions,  224. 
Trumpeters'  Guild,  221. 
Tschaikowsky,  97,  199,  264. 
Tuba,  52,  57,  233,  245,  246-249. 
Tuning  of  Orchestra,  194. 

C/iAa/,  86. 

Valve-Horn,  218. 

Valve-Trombone,  245. 

Valve-Trumpet,  229. 

Velter,  no. 

Verdi,  91,  98,  103,  147,  152,  227, 

265. 
Vibration,  Laws  of,  63,  142. 
V  ibrato,  72,  91. 
Vieuxtemps,  81. 


INDEX 


299 


Vina,  28. 

Viola,  49,  52,  57,  83-88. 
Viola  d'Amore,  47,  48. 
Viola  da  Gamba,  41,  42,  47. 
Violin,  40,  49,  52,  57,  60-82,  85. 
Violino  Piccolo,  47. 
Violins,  Savage,  22. 
Violoncello,  52,  57,  85,  88-94. 
Violoncello  Piccolo,  47,  48,  87. 
Viols,  43. 
Viotti,  77. 
Vitali,  76. 
Voltaire,  94. 

Von  BUlovv,  180,  279,  283. 
Vuillaume,  61. 

Wagner,  56,  57,  58,  67,  68,  69, 
93,  96,  no,   118,   119,   120, 


147,  168,  178,  199,  201,  204, 
205,  215,  218,  224,  226,  227, 
229,  242,  244,  247,  248,  251, 
257,  258,  264,  265,  267,  276, 
278,  279,  286. 

Weber,  52,  54,  loi,  146,  166, 
197,  215,  226,  244,  256,  270, 
274. 

Weingartner,  282. 

Wieniawski,  81. 

Xylophone,  266. 

Ysaye,  81. 

Zamar,  29,  30. 
Zither,  126. 


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